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History, History of Russia - Rurik to Revolution

History of Russia - Rurik to Revolution

For thousands of years, the lands known today as Russia and Ukraine were inhabited by nomadic

tribes and mysterious Bronze Age cultures.

The only record they left were their graves.

In the great open grasslands of the south, the Steppe, they buried their chieftains

beneath huge mounds called kurgans.

The ancient Greek historian Herodotus called these people Scythians.

Their lands were overrun by the same nomadic warriors who brought down the Roman Empire.

The land was then settled by Slavs.

They shared some language and culture, but were divided into many different tribes.

Vikings from Scandinavia, known in the east as Varangians, rode up Russia's long rivers

on daring raids and trading expeditions.

According to legend, the East Slavs asked a Varangian chief named Rurik to be their

prince and unite the tribes.

He accepted and made his capital at Novgorod.

His dynasty, the Rurikids, would rule Russia for 700 years.

His people called themselves the Rus, and gave their name to the land.

Rurik's successor, Oleg, captured Kiev, making it the capital of a new state, Kievan Rus.

A century later, seeking closer ties with the Byzantine Empire to the south, Vladimir

the Great adopted their religion and converted to Orthodox Christianity.

He is still venerated today as the man who brought Christianity to Ukraine and Russia.

Yaroslav the Wise codified laws and conquered new lands.

His reign marked the Golden Age of Kievan Rus.

It was amongst the most sophisticated and powerful states in Europe.

But after Yaroslav's death, his sons fought amongst themselves.

Kievan Rus disintegrated into a patchwork of feuding princedoms.

Just as a deadly new threat emerged from the east.

The Mongols under Genghis Khan had overrun much of Asia.

Now they launched a great raid across the Caucasus mountains, and defeated the Kievan

princes at the Battle of the Kalka River, but then withdrew.

Fourteen years later, the Mongols returned.

A gigantic army led by Batu Khan overran the land.

Cities that resisted were burnt, their people slaughtered.

The city of Novgorod was spared because it submitted to the Mongols.

Its prince, Alexander Nevsky, then saved the city again, defeating the Teutonic Knights

at the Battle of the Ice, fought above a frozen lake.

He remains one of Russia's most revered heroes.

The Mongols ruled the land as conquerors.

Their new empire was called the Golden Horde, ruled by a Khan from his new capital at Sarai.

The Rus princes were his vassals.

They were forced to pay tribute, or suffer devastating reprisal raids.

They called their oppressors Tatars.

They lived under the Tatar yoke.

Alexander Nevsky's son, Daniel, founded the Grand Principality of Moscow, which quickly

grew in power.

Under the great Uzbek Khan, the Tatars converted to Islam.

A rising power, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania defeated the Tatars at the Battle of Blue

Waters and conquered Kiev.

Eighteen years later, Dmitry Donskoy, Grand Prince of Moscow, also defeated the Tatars

at the Great Battle of Kulikovo Field.

After years of infighting, the Golden Horde now began to disintegrate into rival Khanates.

Constantinople, capital and last outpost of the once great Byzantine Empire, fell to the

Turkish Ottoman Empire.

Islam hailed Moscow as the Third Rome, the seat of Orthodox Christian faith, now Rome

and Constantinople had fallen.

Meanwhile, the Grand Princes of Moscow continued to expand their power, annexing Novgorod,

and forging the first Russian state.

At the Ugra River, Ivan III of Moscow faced down the Tatar army, and forced it to retreat.

Russia had finally cast off the Tatar yoke.

Under Grand Prince Vasily III, Moscow continued to grow in size and power.

His son Ivan IV was crowned the first Tsar of Russia.

He would be remembered as Ivan the Terrible.

Ivan conquered Tatar lands in Kazan and Astrakhan, but was defeated in the Livonian War by Sweden

and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

Ivan's modernizing reforms gave way to a reign of terror and mass executions, fuelled by

his violent paranoia.

Russia was still vulnerable.

Tartars from the Crimean Khanate were able to burn Moscow itself, but the next year,

Russian forces routed the Tatars at Molody, just south of the city.

Cossacks now lived on the Open Steppe, a lawless region between three warring states.

They were skilled horsemen who lived freely, and were often recruited by Russia and Poland

to fight as mercenaries.

Ivan the Terrible's own son, the Tsarevich, fell victim to one of his father's violent

rages, bludgeoned to death with the Royal Scepter.

The Cossack adventurer Yermak Timofeevich led the Russian conquest of Siberia, defeating

Tartars and subjugating indigenous tribes.

In the north, Arkhangelsk was founded.

For the time being, Russia's only seaport linking it to Western Europe, though it was

icebound in winter.

Ivan the Terrible was succeeded by his son, Fyodor I, who died childless.

It was the end of the Rurikid dynasty.

Ivan's advisor, Boris Godunov, became Tsar.

But after his sudden death, his widow and teenage son were brutally murdered, and the

throne seized by an imposter claiming to be Ivan the Terrible's son.

He too was soon murdered.

Russia slid into anarchy, the so-called Time of Troubles.

Rebels and foreign armies laid waste to the land, and the population was decimated by

famine and plague.

Polish troops occupied Moscow.

Swedish troops seized Novgorod.

The Russian state seemed on the verge of extinction.

In 1612, Russia was in a state of anarchy.

They called it the Time of Troubles.

The people were terrorized by war, famine and plague.

Up to a third of them perished.

Russian troops occupied Moscow, Smolensk and Novgorod.

But then, Russia fought back.

Prince Pozharsky and a merchant, Kuzma Minin, led the Russian militia to Moscow, and threw

out the Polish garrison.

Since 2005, this event has been commemorated every 4th of November as Russian National

Unity Day.

The Russian Assembly, the Zemsky Sabor, realized the country had to unite behind a new ruler,

and elected a 16-year-old noble, Mikhail Romanov, as the next Tsar.

His dynasty would rule Russia for the next 300 years.

Tsar Mikhail exchanged territory for peace, winning Russia much-needed breathing space.

His son, Tsar Alexei, implemented a new legal code, the Sabornaya Ulogenia.

It turned all Russian peasants, 80% of the population, into serfs, effectively slaves.

Their status inherited by their children, and with no freedom to travel or choose their

master.

It was a system that dominated Russian rural life for the next 200 years.

The head of the Russian Orthodox Church, Patriarch Nikon, imposed religious reforms that split

the Church between reformers and old believers.

It's a schism that continues to this day.

Ukrainian Cossacks, rebelling against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, recognised

Tsar Alexei as overlord, in exchange for his military support.

It led to the 13 Years' War between Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

Russia emerged victorious, reclaiming Smolensk, and taking control of eastern Ukraine.

A revolt against Tsarist government, led by a renegade Cossack, Stenka Razin, brought

anarchy to southern Russia.

It was finally suppressed.

Razin was brought to Moscow, and executed by quartering.

The sickly but highly educated Fyodor III passed many reforms.

He abolished Mesnichestva, the system that had awarded government posts according to

nobility rather than merit, and symbolically burned the ancient books of rank.

But Fyodor died aged just 19.

His sister Sofia became Princess Regent, ruling on behalf of her younger brothers, the joint

Tsars Ivan V and Peter I.

After centuries of conflict, Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth signed a Treaty

of Eternal Peace.

Russia then joined the Holy League in its war against the Ottoman Empire.

Sofia's reign also saw the first treaty between Russia and China, establishing the frontier

between the two states.

At age 17, Peter I seized power from his half-sister Sofia.

Peter became the first Russian ruler to travel abroad.

He toured Europe with his Grand Embassy, seeking allies for Russia's war against Turkey, and

learning the latest developments in science and shipbuilding.

The war against Turkey was successfully concluded by the Treaty of Constantinople.

Russia gained Azov from Turkey's ally, the Crimean Khanate, and with it, a foothold on

the Black Sea.

Peter made many reforms, seeking to turn Russia into a modern European state.

He demanded Russian nobles dress and behave like Europeans.

He made those who refused to shave pay a beard tax.

Peter built the first Russian navy, reformed the army and government, and promoted industry,

trade and education.

In the Great Northern War, Russia, Poland-Lithuania and Denmark took on the dominant power in

the Baltic – Sweden.

The war began badly for Russia, with a disastrous defeat to Charles XII of Sweden at Narva.

But Russia won a second Battle of Narva, before crushing Charles XII's army at the Battle

of Poltava.

On the Baltic coast, Peter completed construction of a new capital, St. Petersburg.

The building of what would become Russia's second-largest city among coastal marshes

was a remarkable achievement, though it cost the lives of many thousands of serfs.

The Great Northern War ended with the Treaty of Neistat.

Russia's gains at Sweden's expense made it the new dominant Baltic power.

Four years before his death, Peter was declared Peter the Great, father of his country, emperor

of all the Russias.

Peter was succeeded by his wife Catherine, then his grandson Peter II, who died a smallpox,

aged just 14.

Empress Anna Janovna, daughter of Peter the Great's half-brother Ivan V, was famed for

her decadence, and the influence of her German lover, Ernst Biron.

During Anna's reign, Vitus Bering, a Danish explorer in Russian service, led the first

expedition to chart the coast of Alaska.

He also discovered the Aleutian Islands, and later gave his name to the sea that separates

Russia and America.

After Anna's death, her infant grandnephew Ivan VI was deposed by Peter the Great's daughter,

Anna.

Ivan VI spent his entire life in captivity.

Until age 23, he was murdered by his guards during a failed rescue attempt.

Elizabeth meanwhile was famed for her vanity, extravagance, and many young lovers.

But she was also capable of decisive leadership.

In alliance with France and Austria, Elizabeth led Russia into the Seven Years' War against

Frederick the Great of Prussia.

The Russian army inflicted a crushing defeat on Frederick at the Battle of Kunersdorf,

but failed to exploit its victory.

Meanwhile, in St. Petersburg, the Winter Palace was completed at vast expense.

It would remain the monarch's official residence right up until the Russian Revolution of 1917.

Peter III was Peter the Great's grandson by his elder daughter Anna Petrovna, who died

as a consequence of childbirth.

Raised in Denmark, Peter spoke hardly any Russian, and greatly admired Russia's enemy,

Frederick the Great.

So he had Russia swap sides in the Seven Years' War, saving Frederick from almost certain

defeat.

Peter's actions angered many army officers, and he'd always been despised by his German

wife Catherine.

Together they deposed Peter III, who died a week later in suspicious circumstances.

His wife Catherine became Empress of Russia.

Her reign would be remembered as one of Russia's most glorious.

In the early 1700s, Peter the Great's reforms put Russia on the path to becoming a great

European power.

But it was his grandson's German wife, Catherine, who deposed her husband to become Empress

of Russia, who oversaw the completion of that transformation.

Like Peter, she too would be remembered as the Great.

Catherine was a student and admirer of the French Enlightenment, and even corresponded

with the French philosopher Voltaire.

She reigned as an enlightened autocrat.

Her power was unchecked, but she pursued ideals of reason, tolerance and progress.

Catherine became a great patron of the arts and learning.

Schools and colleges were built.

The Bolshoi Theatre was founded, as well as the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts, while

her own magnificent collection of artwork now forms the basis of the world-famous Hermitage

Museum.

Catherine encouraged Europeans to move to Russia to share their expertise, and helped

German migrants to settle in the Volga region, where they became known as Volga Germans.

Their communities survived nearly 200 years, until on Stalin's orders, they were deported

east at the start of World War Two.

Catherine's reign also saw enormous territorial expansion.

In the south, Russia defeated the Ottoman Empire, winning new lands, and the fortresses

of Azov and Kerch.

But then Catherine faced a major peasant revolt, led by the renegade Cossack Yemelyan Pugachev.

The rebels took many fortresses and towns, and stormed the city of Kazan, before they

were finally defeated by the Russian army.

Catherine then forcibly incorporated the Zaporozhian Cossacks into the Russian Empire, and annexed

the Crimean Khanate, a thorn in Russia's side for 300 years.

Russia's new lands in the south were named Novorossiya, New Russia.

Sparsely populated, they were settled by Russian colonists under the supervision of Prince

Potemkin, Catherine's advisor and lover.

The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, exhausted by war and at the mercy of its neighbours,

was carved up in a series of partitions, with Russia taking the lion's share.

Poland did not re-emerge as an independent nation until 1918.

Russia inherited a large Jewish population from Poland, who, Catherine decreed, could

live only in the so-called Pale of Settlement, and were excluded from most cities.

In France, the French Revolution led to the execution of King Louis XVI.

Catherine was horrified, and in the last years of her reign, completely turned her back on

the liberal idealism of her youth.

Three years later, Catherine died, ending one of the most glorious reigns in Russian

history.

She was succeeded by her son, Paul, a man obsessed by military discipline and detail,

and opposed to all his mother's works.

Russia joined the Coalition of European Powers, fighting revolutionary France.

Marshal Suvorov, one of Russia's greatest military commanders, won a series of victories

against the French in northern Italy.

But the wider war was a failure.

Meanwhile, Paul's reforms had alienated Russia's army and nobility, and he was murdered in

a palace coup.

He was succeeded by his 23-year-old son, Alexander, who shared his grandmother Catherine's vision

for a more modern Russian state.

His advisor, the brilliant Count Mikhail Speransky, reformed administration and finance, yet the

Emperor refused to back his plans for a liberal constitution.

Ultimately, it was war with France that would dominate Alexander's reign.

France had a new Emperor, Napoleon Bonaparte, who inflicted a series of defeats on Russia

and her allies, at Austerlitz, Aislau, and Friedland.

But at Tilsit in 1807, the two young Emperors met, and made an alliance.

Russia attacked Sweden, annexing Finland, which became an autonomous Grand Duchy within

the Russian Empire.

But then, in 1812, Napoleon invaded Russia.

At Borodino, French and Russian armies clashed in a gigantic battle, one of the bloodiest

of the age.

Napoleon emerged victorious, but the Russian army escaped intact.

Napoleon occupied Moscow, which was destroyed by fire.

And when Alexander refused to negotiate, the French army was forced to make a long retreat

through the Russian winter, and was annihilated.

Napoleon had been dealt a mortal blow, and Russia, alongside Prussia, Austria and Britain,

then led the fight back, which ended in the capture of Paris, and Napoleon's abdication.

At the Congress of Vienna, as part of the spoils of war, Alexander became King of Poland.

Then, with Austria and Prussia, he formed the Holy Alliance, with the aim of preventing

further revolutions in Europe.

Meanwhile in the Balkans and Caucasus, Russia had been waging intermittent wars against

the Ottoman Empire, Persia, and local tribes.

The frontier had been pushed south, to incorporate Bessarabia, Circassia, Chechnya, and much

of modern Georgia, Talistan, Azerbaijan, and Armenia.

But the peoples of the Caucasus bitterly resisted Russian rule.

Alexander's attempt to impose its authority on the region led to the Caucasian War, a

brutal conflict fought amongst the mountains and forests, that would drag on for nearly

50 years.

Alexander was succeeded by his brother Nicholas, a conservative and reactionary.

But parts of Russian society had now developed an appetite for European-style liberalism,

including certain army officers who'd seen other ways of doing things during the Napoleonic Wars.

They saw Nicholas as an obstacle, and the new Emperor's first challenge would be military revolt.

1825.

Victory over Napoleon had confirmed Russia's status as a world power.

But there was discontent within Russia amongst intellectuals and army officers, some of whom

had formed secret societies to plot the overthrow of Russia's autocratic system.

When Emperor Alexander was succeeded, not as expected by his brother Constantine, but

by a younger brother Nicholas, one of these secret societies used the confusion to launch

a military coup.

But the Decembrist Revolt, as it became known, was defeated by loyalist troops, and the ringleaders

were hanged.

Others were sent into internal exile in Siberia.

This was to become a common sentence for criminals and political prisoners in Tsarist Russia.

This went on to adopt an official doctrine of orthodoxy, autocracy, and nationality.

The state was to rest on the pillars of church, Tsar, and the Russian national spirit, a clear

rejection of the values of European liberalism.

In the Caucasus, border clashes with Persia led to a war which ended in complete Russian

victory.

The Treaty of Turkmenchay forced Persia to cede all its territories in the region to

Russia, and pay a large indemnity.

Russian support for Greece in its war of independence against the Ottomans led to war between Russia

and the Ottoman Empire.

Russian victory brought further gains in the Black Sea region.

A Polish revolt, led by young army officers, was crushed by Russian troops.

Alexander Pushkin, Russia's greatest poet, was shot in a duel, and two days later, died

from his wounds.

Nicholas sent troops to help put down a Hungarian revolt against Austrian rule.

The Emperor's willingness to help suppress liberal revolts won him the nickname, the

Gendarme, or Policeman of Europe.

Russia's first major railway was opened, connecting St. Petersburg and Moscow.

Alexander Herzen, a leading intellectual critic of Russia's autocracy, emigrated to London,

where he continued to call for reform in his homeland.

He'd later be described as the father of Russian socialism.

The Ottoman Empire, now known as the Sick Man of Europe, reacted to further Russian

provocations by declaring war.

The Russian Black Sea Fleet inflicted a crushing defeat on the Turks at the Battle of Sinope.

But Britain and France, alarmed at Russia's southern expansion and potential control of

Constantinople, declared war on Russia.

The Allies landed troops in Crimea, and besieged the naval base of Sevastopol, which fell after

a gruelling year-long siege.

In the Baltic, British and French warships blockaded the Russian capital, St. Petersburg.

Russia was forced to sign a humiliating peace, withdraw its forces from the Black Sea, and

put on hold plans for further southern expansion.

Nicholas I was succeeded by his son, Alexander II.

The Crimean War had exposed Russia's weakness.

The country lagged far behind its European rivals in industry, infrastructure, and military

power.

So Alexander, unlike his father, decided to embrace reform.

The most obvious sign of Russia's backwardness was serfdom.

According to the 1857 census, more than a third of Russians were serfs, forced to work

their master's land with few rights, restrictions on movement, and their status passed down

to their children.

They were slaves in all but name.

In 1861, Alexander II abolished serfdom in Russia.

He was hailed as the Liberator.

But in reality, most former serfs remained trapped in servitude and poverty.

Alexander's reforms would continue with the creation of the Zemstvo, provincial assemblies

with authority over local affairs, including education and social welfare.

In the Far East, Russia forced territorial concessions from a weakened China, leading

to the founding of Vladivostok, Russia's major Pacific port.

The ever-uprising by Poles and Lithuanians against Russian rule was once more crushed

by the Russian army.

In the Caucasus, Russia's long and brutal war against local tribes came to an end, with

their leaders swearing oaths of loyalty to the Tsar.

In Central Asia, the Russian Empire was gradually expanding southwards.

Russian armies defeated the Emirate of Bukhara and the Khanate of Kiva.

And by the 1880s, Russia had conquered most of what was then called Turkestan, today the

countries of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan.

Imperial rivalry in Central Asia between Russia and Britain led to the Great Game, a 19th

century version of the Cold War.

Centred on Afghanistan, diplomats and spies on both sides tried to win local support,

extend their own influence and limit the expansion of their rival, while avoiding direct military

confrontation.

Russia decided to sell Alaska to America for $7.2 million.

Many Americans thought it was a waste of money.

Gold and oil were only discovered there much later.

Leo Tolstoy's War and Peace was published, still regarded as one of the world's greatest

works of literature.

The late 19th century was a cultural golden age for Russia, a period of literary greats

and outstanding composers.

Russia, in support of nationalist revolts in the Balkans against Ottoman rule, went

to war with the Ottoman Empire once more.

Russian troops crossed the Danube, then with Bulgarian help, fought to secure the vital

Shipka Pass.

Then they launched a bloody five-month siege of Plevna in Bulgaria.

Russia and her allies finally won victory, with their troops threatening Constantinople

itself.

But at the Congress of Berlin, Russia bowed to international pressure and accepted limited

gains in a settlement that also led to independence for Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, and later,

Bulgaria.

Meanwhile within Russia, radical political groups were increasingly frustrated by Alexander

II's limited reforms.

There were several failed attempts to assassinate the Emperor, but as he prepared to approve

new constitutional reforms, he was killed in St. Petersburg by a bomb thrown by members

of the People's Will, one of the world's first modern terrorist groups.

This act of violence would lead only to a new era of repression.

In 1881, Russian Emperor Alexander II was assassinated by left-wing terrorists in St.

Petersburg.

Today, the place where he was fatally wounded is marked by the magnificent Church of the

Saviour on spilled blood.

Alexander II had been a reformer, hailed as the liberator for freeing Russia's serfs.

But his son and successor Alexander III believed his father's reforms had unleashed dangerous

forces within Russia, that ultimately led to his death.

As Emperor, he publicly vowed to reassert autocratic rule, declaring that,

"...in the midst of our great grief, the voice of God orders us to undertake courageously

the task of ruling, with faith in the strength and rightness of autocratic power."

The Tsar's secret police, the so-called Okhranka, was ordered to infiltrate Russia's many revolutionary

groups.

Those found guilty of plotting against the government were hanged, or sent into internal

exile in Siberia.

Alexander III was a pious man who supported the Orthodox Church, and the assertion of

a strong Russian national identity.

Russia's Jews became victims of this policy.

They'd already been targeted in murderous race riots known as pogroms, after false rumours

were spread that they were responsible for the assassination of the Emperor.

Now the government expelled 20,000 Jews from Moscow, and many who could, began to leave

the country.

For the next 40 years, around 2 million Jews would leave Russia, most bound for the USA.

Concerned by the growing power of Germany, Russia signed an alliance with France, both

sides promising military aid if the other was attacked.

Sergei Witte was appointed Russia's new Minister of Finance.

His reforms helped to modernise the Russian economy, and encourage foreign investment,

particularly from its new ally, France.

French loans helped Russia to develop its industry and infrastructure.

Work began on the Trans-Siberian Railway.

Completed in 1916, it remains the world's longest railway line, running 5,772 miles

from Moscow to Vladivostok.

Alexander III was succeeded by his son, Nicholas II.

His coronation was marred by tragedy, when 1,400 people were crushed to death at an open-air

celebration in Moscow.

China granted Russia the right to build a naval base at Port Arthur.

When China faced a major revolt, known as the Boxer Rebellion, Russia moved troops into

Manchuria under the pretext of defending Port Arthur from the rebels.

This brought Russia into conflict with Japan, who also had designs over Manchuria, and Korea.

The Japanese made a surprise attack on Port Arthur, then defeated the Russian army at

the giant Battle of Mukden.

Russia's Baltic Fleet, meanwhile, had sailed halfway around the world to reach the Pacific,

where it was immediately annihilated at the Battle of Tsushima.

Russia was left with no option but to sign a humiliating peace, brokered by US President

Theodore Roosevelt.

Meanwhile, the Tsar faced another crisis much closer to home.

In St. Petersburg, a strike by steel workers had escalated, and plans were made for a mass

demonstration.

Tens of thousands of protesters marched to the Winter Palace to present a petition to

the Tsar, asking for better workers' rights and more political freedom.

But instead, troops opened fire on the crowds, killing more than 100.

Bloody Sunday, as it became known, led to more strikes and unrest across the country.

The crew of the battleship Potemkin mutinied, killing their officers and taking control

of the ship.

To defuse the crisis, Nicholas II reluctantly issued the October Manifesto, drafted under

the supervision of Sergei Witte.

It promised an elected assembly and new political rights, including freedom of speech, and was

welcomed by most moderates.

Russia's first constitution was drafted the next year.

For the first time, the Tsar would share power with an elected assembly, the State

Duma, though the Tsar had the right to veto its legislation and dissolve it at any time.

Sergei Witte finally lost the Tsar's confidence and was dismissed.

The Tsar's new Prime Minister, Stolypin, introduced land reforms to help the peasants.

But dealing severely with Russia's would-be revolutionaries, so much so that the hangman's

noose got a new nickname, Stolypin's necktie.

But having survived several attempts on his life, Stolypin was shot and killed by an assassin

at the Kiev Opera House.

Meanwhile, Grigory Rasputin, a Siberian faith healer, had joined the imperial family's inner

circle, thanks to his unique ability to ease the suffering of the Tsar's haemophiliac son,

Alexei.

Despite sporadic acts of terrorism, Russia now had the fastest-growing economy in Europe.

Agricultural and industrial output were on the rise.

Most ordinary Russians remained loyal to the Tsar and his family.

Russia's future seemed bright.

In 1914, in Sarajevo, a Slav nationalist assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian

throne, sparking a European crisis.

When Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, Emperor Nicholas ordered the Russian army

to mobilise, to show his support for a fellow Slav nation.

Austria-Hungary's ally, Germany, saw Russian mobilisation as a threat, and declared war.

Europe's network of alliances came into effect, and soon all the major powers were marching

to war.

World War One had begun.

Prussia experienced a wave of patriotic fervour.

The capital, St Petersburg, was even renamed Petrograd, to sound less German.

An early Russian advance into East Prussia ended with heavy defeats at Tannenberg, and

the Missouri and Lakes.

There was greater success against Austria-Hungary, but that too came at a high price.

Russian losses forced the army to make a general retreat in 1915.

In 1916, Russia's Brusilov offensive against Austro-Hungarian forces was one of the most

successful Allied attacks of the war.

But losses were so heavy that the Russian army was unable to launch any more major operations.

In Petrograd, Rasputin, whose alleged influence over the Tsar's family was despised by certain

Russian aristocrats, was murdered, possibly with the help of British agents.

The war put intolerable strains on Russia.

At the front, losses were enormous.

While in the cities, economic mismanagement led to rising prices and food shortages.

In Petrograd, the workers' frustration led to strikes and demonstrations.

Troops ordered to disperse the crowds refused, and joined the protesters instead.

The government had lost control of the capital.

On board the Imperial train at Puskov, senior politicians and generals told the Emperor

he must abdicate, or Russia would descend into anarchy and lose the war.

Nicholas accepted their advice, and renounced the throne in favour of his brother, Grand

Duke Michael, who effectively declined the offer.

Four hundred years of Romanov rule were at an end.

Russia was now a republic.

A provisional government took power, but could not halt Russia's slide into economic and

military chaos.

Workers, soldiers and peasants elected their own councils, known as Soviets.

The Petrograd Soviet was so powerful, it was effectively a rival government, especially

as discontent with the provisional government continued to grow.

The Bolsheviks, under Vladimir Lenin, attracted growing support, with their radical proposals

for an immediate end to the war, the redistribution of land, and transfer of power to the Soviets.

In October, they launched a coup, masterminded by Leon Trotsky.

Bolshevik Red Guards stormed the Winter Palace, where the provisional government met, and

arrested its members.

Lenin and the Bolsheviks were now in charge.

Russia had been thrown upon a bold and dangerous course.

Under a Marxist-inspired revolutionary party, it would now seek to create the world's first

communist state.

But first, it would have to survive the chaos and slaughter of one of history's bloodiest

civil wars.

History of Russia - Rurik to Revolution история|о|России|Рюрик|до|революции Historia de Rusia - De Rurik a la Revolución Storia della Russia - Da Rurik alla Rivoluzione ロシアの歴史 - ルリクから革命まで Historia Rosji - od Ruryka do rewolucji História da Rússia - de Rurik à Revolução История России - от Рюрика до Революции

In the great open grasslands of the south, the Steppe, they buried their chieftains в|великих|великих|открытых|степях|юга|Степь||||они|похоронили|своих|вождей ||||as planícies||||||||| На великих открытых травянистых равнинах юга, Степи, они хранили своих вождей

beneath huge mounds called kurgans. под|огромными|курганами|называемыми|курганами debaixo|||| под огромными курганами.

Their lands were overrun by the same nomadic warriors who brought down the Roman Empire. их|земли|были|захвачены|теми|теми|теми же|кочевыми|воинами|которые|принесли|падение|Римской|Римской|Империи |||invadidas||||||||||| Их земли были захвачены теми же кочевыми воинами, которые разрушили Римскую империю.

The land was then settled by Slavs. эта|земля|была|затем|заселена|славянами| ||||||eslavos Земля была затем заселена славянами.

They shared some language and culture, but were divided into many different tribes. они|делили|некоторую|язык|и|культуру|но|были|разделены|на|многие|разные|племена |||||||||||diferentes| Они делили некоторые языковые и культурные черты, но были разделены на множество различных племен.

Vikings from Scandinavia, known in the east as Varangians, rode up Russia's long rivers викинги|из|Скандинавии|известные|на|востоке||как|варяги|ехали|вверх|российских|длинным|рекам Викинги из Скандинавии, известные на востоке как варяги, поднимались по длинным рекам России

According to legend, the East Slavs asked a Varangian chief named Rurik to be their согласно|к|легенде||восточным|славянам|попросили|одного|варяжского|вождя|по имени|Рюрик||быть|их Согласно легенде, восточные славяне попросили варяжского вождя по имени Рюрик стать их

prince and unite the tribes. князем|и|объединить||племена князем и объединить племена.

His dynasty, the Rurikids, would rule Russia for 700 years. его|династия||Рюриковичи|будут|править|Россией|в течение|лет Его династия, Рюриковичи, будет править Россией в течение 700 лет.

His people called themselves the Rus, and gave their name to the land. его|люди|называли|себя||Русь|и|дали|свое|имя|к||земле Его народ называл себя Русью и дал свое имя земле.

Rurik's successor, Oleg, captured Kiev, making it the capital of a new state, Kievan Rus. Рюриков|преемник|Олег|захватил|Киев|сделав|его||столицей|нового|||государства|Киевская|Русь Преемник Рюрика, Олег, захватил Киев, сделав его столицей нового государства, Киевская Русь.

A century later, seeking closer ties with the Byzantine Empire to the south, Vladimir один|век|позже|стремясь|более близкие|связи|с||Византийской|империей|к||югу|Владимир Спустя век, стремясь к более тесным связям с Византийской империей на юге, Владимир

Kievan Rus disintegrated into a patchwork of feuding princedoms. Киевская|Русь|распалась|на||мозаика|из|враждующих|княжеств Киевская Русь распалась на множество враждующих княжеств.

Just as a deadly new threat emerged from the east. только|как||смертоносная|новая|угроза|возникла|из||востока Как раз в это время с востока возникла новая смертельная угроза.

The Mongols under Genghis Khan had overrun much of Asia. |монголы|под|Чингисом|ханом|имели|захватили|большую||Азию Монголы под предводительством Чингисхана захватили большую часть Азии.

Now they launched a great raid across the Caucasus mountains, and defeated the Kievan теперь|они|начали|один|великий|набег|через||Кавказ|горы|и|разбили||киевских Теперь они начали великое нападение через Кавказские горы и разбили киевских

princes at the Battle of the Kalka River, but then withdrew. князей в битве на реке Калке, но затем отступили.

Fourteen years later, the Mongols returned. Четырнадцать лет спустя монголы вернулись.

A gigantic army led by Batu Khan overran the land. Гигантская армия под предводительством Бату-хана захватила землю.

Cities that resisted were burnt, their people slaughtered. города|которые|сопротивлялись|были|сожжены|их|люди|убиты |||||||massacrados Города, которые сопротивлялись, были сожжены, их жители убиты.

The city of Novgorod was spared because it submitted to the Mongols. этот|город|Новгород||был|пощажен|потому что|он|подчинялся|к|монголам| Город Новгород был пощажен, потому что он сдался монголам.

Its prince, Alexander Nevsky, then saved the city again, defeating the Teutonic Knights его|князь|Александр|Невский|затем|спас|город|снова||побеждая|Тевтонских||рыцарей Его князь, Александр Невский, затем снова спас город, победив Тевтонских рыцарей

at the Battle of the Ice, fought above a frozen lake. на|битве|битва|озера|Ледяное||сражение|над|замерзшим||озером в битве на льду, которая произошла над замерзшим озером.

Their new empire was called the Golden Horde, ruled by a Khan from his new capital at Sarai. их|новая|империя|была|названа|Золотая||Орда|правившая|под|ханом||из|его|новой|столицы|в|Сарай Их новая империя называлась Золотая Орда, которой правил хан из своей новой столицы в Сарае.

They were forced to pay tribute, or suffer devastating reprisal raids. они|были|вынуждены|к|платить|дань|или|страдать|разрушительными|ответными|набегами |||||||||represália| Их заставляли платить дань, иначе они страдали от разрушительных ответных набегов.

They called their oppressors Tatars. они|называли|своих|угнетателей|татар Они называли своих угнетателей татарами.

They lived under the Tatar yoke. они|жили|под|ярмом|татарским| |||||jugo Они жили под татарским игом.

Alexander Nevsky's son, Daniel, founded the Grand Principality of Moscow, which quickly Александра|Невского|сын|Даниил|основал|великое|княжество|княжество|Москвы||которое|быстро Сын Александра Невского, Даниил, основал Великое княжество Московское, которое быстро

grew in power. росла|в|силе выросла в силе.

Waters and conquered Kiev. |и|завоевало|Киев и завоевало Киев.

Eighteen years later, Dmitry Donskoy, Grand Prince of Moscow, also defeated the Tatars восемнадцать|лет|спустя|Дмитрий|Донской|Великий|князь|Москвы||также|победил|татар| Восемнадцать лет спустя Дмитрий Донской, великий князь Московский, также победил татар.

Turkish Ottoman Empire. турецкий|османская|империя Османская империя.

Islam hailed Moscow as the Third Rome, the seat of Orthodox Christian faith, now Rome ислам|провозгласил|Москву|как||третий|Рим||место||православной|христианской|веры|теперь|Рим |saudou||||||||||||| Ислам провозгласил Москву Третьим Римом, местом православной христианской веры, теперь Рим

and Constantinople had fallen. и|Константинополь||пал и Константинополь пали.

Meanwhile, the Grand Princes of Moscow continued to expand their power, annexing Novgorod, тем временем||великие|князья||Москвы|продолжали||расширять|свою|власть|аннексируя|Новгород Тем временем великие князья Москвы продолжали расширять свою власть, аннексируя Новгород,

At the Ugra River, Ivan III of Moscow faced down the Tatar army, and forced it to retreat. у|реки|Угра|река|Иван|III|из|Москвы|столкнулся|лицом к лицу|татарской|татарской|армии|и|заставил|её|к|отступлению ||||||||enfrentou||||||||| На реке Угра Иван III Московский противостоял татарской армии и заставил её отступить.

Russia had finally cast off the Tatar yoke. Россия|имела|наконец|сбросила|с|татарское|татарское|иго a Rússia|||livrou|||| Россия наконец сбросила татарское иго.

and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. и|польско-литовским|||государством и Речью Посполитой.

Ivan's modernizing reforms gave way to a reign of terror and mass executions, fuelled by Ивана|модернизирующие|реформы|дали|путь|к|одному|царствованию|террора||и|массовым|казням|подпитываемый|чем Модернизирующие реформы Ивана привели к царствованию террора и массовым казням, подпитываемым

his violent paranoia. его|насильственной|паранойей его жестокой паранойей.

Russia was still vulnerable. Россия|была|все еще|уязвимой Россия все еще была уязвима.

Tartars from the Crimean Khanate were able to burn Moscow itself, but the next year, татары|из|Крымского||ханства|были|способными|к|сжечь|Москву|саму|но|следующий|год| Татары из Крымского ханства смогли сжечь саму Москву, но в следующем году,

Russian forces routed the Tatars at Molody, just south of the city. русские|войска|разбили|татар|татар|у|Молодых|прямо|южнее|от|города|города ||||tártaros||||||| Русские войска разбили татар в Молоды, к югу от города.

to fight as mercenaries. чтобы|сражаться|как|наемники в качестве наемников.

Ivan the Terrible's own son, the Tsarevich, fell victim to one of his father's violent Иван|тот|Грозного|собственный|сын|тот|Царевич|пал|жертвой|к|одному|из|его|отца|жестоких Собственный сын Ивана Грозного, царевич, стал жертвой одного из его отцовских

rages, bludgeoned to death with the Royal Scepter. |забит|до|смерти|с|жезлом|королевским|скипетром enfurece|massacrado|||||| яростей, забитый до смерти царским скипетром.

The Cossack adventurer Yermak Timofeevich led the Russian conquest of Siberia, defeating тот|казачий|авантюрист|Ермак|Тимофеевич|возглавил|тот|российское|завоевание||Сибири|побеждая Казачий авантюрист Ермак Тимофеевич возглавил российское завоевание Сибири, победив

Tartars and subjugating indigenous tribes. татар|и|подчиняя|коренные|племена татаров и подчиняя коренные племена.

icebound in winter. замороженный|в|зиму gelado|| покрыт льдом зимой.

Ivan the Terrible was succeeded by his son, Fyodor I, who died childless. Иван|Грозный|Грозный|был|преемником|его||сын|Фёдор|I|который|умер|бездетным Ивана Грозного сменил его сын, Фёдор I, который умер бездетным.

It was the end of the Rurikid dynasty. это|было|конец|конец|династии|Рюриковичей|| Это был конец династии Рюриковичей.

throne seized by an imposter claiming to be Ivan the Terrible's son. |захвачен|кем-то|самозванцем||утверждающим|быть||Иваном|Грозным||сыном трон был захвачен самозванцем, claiming to be сыном Ивана Грозного.

He too was soon murdered. он|тоже|был|вскоре|убит Он тоже вскоре был убит.

Russia slid into anarchy, the so-called Time of Troubles. Россия|скатилась|в|анархию|так называемую|||время|бедствий|смут Россия погрузилась в анархию, так называемое Смутное время.

Rebels and foreign armies laid waste to the land, and the population was decimated by повстанцы|и|иностранные|армии|положили|разорение|на|землю||и|население||было|истреблено|от Повстанцы и иностранные армии опустошали землю, а население было истреблено

famine and plague. голод|и|чума голодом и чумой.

Polish troops occupied Moscow. польские|войска|оккупировали|Москву Польские войска оккупировали Москву.

Swedish troops seized Novgorod. шведские|войска|захватили|Новгород Шведские войска захватили Новгород.

The Russian state seemed on the verge of extinction. российское|российское|государство|казалось|на|грани|грани||вымирания Российское государство казалось на грани исчезновения.

In 1612, Russia was in a state of anarchy. в|Россия|была|в|состоянии|состоянии||анархии В 1612 году Россия находилась в состоянии анархии.

But then, Russia fought back. но|затем|Россия|сражалась|в ответ Но затем Россия нанесла ответный удар.

out the Polish garrison. из|польский|польский|гарнизон польский гарнизон.

Since 2005, this event has been commemorated every 4th of November as Russian National с|это|событие|имеет|было|отмечено|каждый|4|ноября||как|русский|национальный С 2005 года это событие отмечается 4 ноября как Российский национальный

Unity Day. единство|день День единства.

and elected a 16-year-old noble, Mikhail Romanov, as the next Tsar. и|избрали|16-летнего|||дворянина|Михаила|Романова|в качестве|следующего|следующего|царя и выбрало 16-летнего дворянина Михаила Романова следующим царем.

Tsar Mikhail exchanged territory for peace, winning Russia much-needed breathing space. царь|Михаил|обменял|территорию|за|мир|выиграв|России|||дыхательное|пространство Царь Михаил обменял территорию на мир, выиграв для России столь необходимое дыхательное пространство.

His son, Tsar Alexei, implemented a new legal code, the Sabornaya Ulogenia. его|сын|царь|Алексей|внедрил|новый||юридический|код||Соборная|Уложение Его сын, царь Алексей, внедрил новый свод законов, Саборная Уложение.

It turned all Russian peasants, 80% of the population, into serfs, effectively slaves. это|превратило|всех|русских|крестьян|из||населения|в|крепостных|фактически|рабов Это превратило всех русских крестьян, составляющих 80% населения, в крепостных, фактически рабов.

master. мастер мастер.

The head of the Russian Orthodox Church, Patriarch Nikon, imposed religious reforms that split глава|глава|Русской|Русской||православной|церкви|патриарх|Никон|навязал|религиозные|реформы|которые|разделили Глава Русской православной церкви, патриарх Никон, ввел религиозные реформы, которые разделили

Ukrainian Cossacks, rebelling against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, recognised украинские|казаки|восставшие|против|польско-литовского|||Commonwealth|признали Украинские казаки, восставшие против Польско-Литовской Commonwealth, признали

It led to the 13 Years' War between Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. это|привело|к|13-летней|летней|войне|между|Россией|и|польско-литовским|||Commonwealth Это привело к 13-летней войне между Россией и Польско-Литовской Commonwealth.

anarchy to southern Russia. анархию|в|южную|Россию к анархии на юге России.

It was finally suppressed. Это|было|наконец|подавлено Оно было наконец подавлено.

He abolished Mesnichestva, the system that had awarded government posts according to он|отменил|Мещеничество|систему||которая|имела|награждала|государственные|должности|согласно|к ||os Mesnichestva||||||||| Он отменил Месничество, систему, которая присваивала государственные должности в соответствии с

nobility rather than merit, and symbolically burned the ancient books of rank. дворянство|скорее|чем|заслуга|и|символически|сжёг|древние||книги|о|чина дворянством, а не заслугами, и символически сжег древние книги о рангах.

But Fyodor died aged just 19. но|Фёдор|умер|в возрасте|всего Но Фёдор умер в возрасте всего 19 лет.

His sister Sofia became Princess Regent, ruling on behalf of her younger brothers, the joint его|сестра|София|стала|принцессой|регентом|правя|на|behalf|за|её|младших|братьев|совместных| ||Sofia|||||||||||| Его сестра София стала регентом-принцессой, правя от имени своих младших братьев, совместных

After centuries of conflict, Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth signed a Treaty после|веков|конфликтов|конфликт|Россия|и|польско-литовским|||государством|подписали|договор|мирный После веков конфликтов Россия и Польско-Литовская Республика подписали договор

of Eternal Peace. вечного|мира|мира Вечной Мира.

Russia then joined the Holy League in its war against the Ottoman Empire. Россия|затем|присоединилась|к|Святой|лиге|в|её|войне|против|Османской||империи Россия затем присоединилась к Святой Лиге в её войне против Османской Империи.

Sofia's reign also saw the first treaty between Russia and China, establishing the frontier Софии|правление|также|увидело|первый||договор|между|Россией|и|Китаем|устанавливающий|границу|границу Правление Софии также ознаменовалось первым договором между Россией и Китаем, устанавливающим границу

between the two states. между|двумя|государствами|государствами между двумя государствами.

At age 17, Peter I seized power from his half-sister Sofia. в|возрасте|Пётр|I|захватил|власть|от|своей|||Софии В 17 лет Пётр I захватил власть у своей сводной сестры Софьи.

the Black Sea. Черное|Черное|море Черное море.

trade and education. торговле|и|образованию торговли и образования.

In the Great Northern War, Russia, Poland-Lithuania and Denmark took on the dominant power in в||Великая|Северная|война|Россия|||и|Дания|взяли|на||доминирующую|силу|в В Великой Северной войне Россия, Польша-Литва и Дания выступили против доминирующей силы в

the Baltic – Sweden. |Балтика|Швеция Балтике – Швеции.

The war began badly for Russia, with a disastrous defeat to Charles XII of Sweden at Narva. |война|началась|плохо|для|России|с||катастрофическим|поражением|от|Карла|XII||Швеции|у|Нарвы Война началась плохо для России, с катастрофическим поражением от Карла XII Шведского под Нарвой.

But Russia won a second Battle of Narva, before crushing Charles XII's army at the Battle Но|Россия|выиграла||вторую|битву||Нарва|прежде чем|сокрушая|Карла||армию|на||битве Но Россия выиграла вторую битву при Нарве, прежде чем разбить армию Карла XII в битве

of Poltava. из|Полтавы Полтавы.

On the Baltic coast, Peter completed construction of a new capital, St. Petersburg. на||Балтийском|побережье|Петр|завершил|строительство|новой|||столицей|Санкт|Петербург На Балтийском побережье Петр завершил строительство новой столицы, Санкт-Петербурга.

The building of what would become Russia's second-largest city among coastal marshes |строительство|чего|что|бы|стать|России|||городом|среди|прибрежных|болот ||||||||||||os pântanos Строительство того, что станет вторым по величине городом России среди прибрежных болот,

was a remarkable achievement, though it cost the lives of many thousands of serfs. было||замечательное|достижение|хотя|это|стоило||жизни|многих||тысяч|крепостных| было выдающимся достижением, хотя это стоило жизни многим тысячам крестьян.

The Great Northern War ended with the Treaty of Neistat. Великая|Северная|война|закончилась|с|договором|Ништадтским||| Великая Северная война закончилась Ништадтским миром.

Russia's gains at Sweden's expense made it the new dominant Baltic power. России|приобретения|за|шведский|счет|сделали|ее|новой|доминирующей|балтийской|силой| da Rússia||||||||||| Приобретения России за счет Швеции сделали её новой доминирующей балтийской державой.

Four years before his death, Peter was declared Peter the Great, father of his country, emperor Четыре|года|до|его|смерти|Петра|был|объявлен|Петром|Великим||отцом||его|страны|императором За четыре года до своей смерти Пётр был провозглашён Петром Великим, отцом своего народа, императором

of all the Russias. всех|Русских|| всех Русей.

Peter was succeeded by his wife Catherine, then his grandson Peter II, who died a smallpox, Пётр|был|преемником|его|его|жена|Екатерина|затем|его|внук|||который|умер|от|оспы Петра сменила его жена Екатерина, затем внук Петр II, который умер от оспы,

aged just 14. в возрасте|всего в возрасте всего 14 лет.

Empress Anna Janovna, daughter of Peter the Great's half-brother Ivan V, was famed for императрица|Анна|Яновна|дочь|от|Петра|великого|великого|||Ивана|V|была|известна|за Императрица Анна Иоановна, дочь сводного брата Петра Великого Ивана V, была известна своей

expedition to chart the coast of Alaska. |к||морю||| экспедицию для составления карты побережья Аляски.

He also discovered the Aleutian Islands, and later gave his name to the sea that separates ||||||и||||||||| ||||Aleutianas||||||||||| Он также открыл Алеутские острова, а позже назвал в честь себя море, которое отделяет

Russia and America. Россию|и|Америку Россию от Америки.

Anna. Анна Анной.

Until age 23, he was murdered by his guards during a failed rescue attempt. до|возраста|он|был|убит|охранниками|его||во время|неудачной|неудачной|спасательной|попытки До 23 лет его убили охранники во время неудачной попытки спасения.

In alliance with France and Austria, Elizabeth led Russia into the Seven Years' War against в|союзе|с|Францией|и|Австрией|Елизавета|вела|Россию|в||Семилетнюю|войну||против В союзе с Францией и Австрией Елизавета ввела Россию в Семилетнюю войну против

Frederick the Great of Prussia. Фридриха||Великого|из|Пруссии Фридриха Великого Прусского.

The Russian army inflicted a crushing defeat on Frederick at the Battle of Kunersdorf, этот|русская|армия|нанесла|одно|сокрушительное|поражение|на|Фридриха|на|битве|битва|при|Кунерсдорф ||||||||Frederico|||||Kunersdorf Русская армия нанесла сокрушительное поражение Фридриху в битве при Кунерсдорфе,

as a consequence of childbirth. как|следствие|следствие|родов|родов в результате родов.

Frederick the Great. Фридрих|великий|великий Фридрихом Великим.

So he had Russia swap sides in the Seven Years' War, saving Frederick from almost certain так|он|заставил|Россию|поменять|стороны|в||Семилетней|войны|войне|спасая|Фридриха|от|почти|неизбежного Таким образом, он заставил Россию перейти на другую сторону в Семилетней войне, спасая Фридриха от почти определенного

defeat. поражения поражения.

Peter's actions angered many army officers, and he'd always been despised by his German Петра|действия|разозлили|многих|армейских|офицеров|и|он всегда|всегда|был|презираем|его|его|немецкой ||||||||||desprezado||| Действия Петра разозлили многих офицеров армии, и его всегда ненавидела его немецкая

wife Catherine. жена Екатерина.

European power. европейская|сила Европейская держава.

of Russia, who oversaw the completion of that transformation. России||которая|наблюдала за|завершением|завершение|этой|той|трансформацией |||supervisionou||||| России, которая курировала завершение этой трансформации.

Catherine was a student and admirer of the French Enlightenment, and even corresponded Екатерина|была|студенткой||и|поклонницей|французского|просвещения|||и|даже|переписывалась Екатерина была студенткой и поклонницей французского Просвещения и даже переписывалась

with the French philosopher Voltaire. с|французским||философом|Вольтером с французским философом Вольтером.

She reigned as an enlightened autocrat. Она|правила|как|просвещённая||автократ Она правила как просвещенный автократ.

Her power was unchecked, but she pursued ideals of reason, tolerance and progress. её|власть|была|неограниченной|но|она|стремилась|идеалы|разума||терпимости|и|прогресса |||descontrolada||||||||| Ее власть не имела ограничений, но она стремилась к идеалам разума, терпимости и прогресса.

Schools and colleges were built. школы|и|колледжи|были|построены Были построены школы и колледжи.

her own magnificent collection of artwork now forms the basis of the world-famous Hermitage ее|собственная|великолепная|коллекция|произведений|искусства|теперь|составляет|основу|основу|для|всемирно|||Эрмитажа ее собственная великолепная коллекция произведений искусства теперь составляет основу всемирно известного Эрмитажа.

Museum. Музей.

German migrants to settle in the Volga region, where they became known as Volga Germans. немецким|мигрантам|к|оседать|в||Волге|регионе|где|они|стали|известными|как|Волга|немцами немецким мигрантам оседать в Поволжье, где они стали известны как поволжские немцы.

of Azov and Kerch. из|Азова|и|Керчи Азов и Керчь.

But then Catherine faced a major peasant revolt, led by the renegade Cossack Yemelyan Pugachev. но|затем|Екатерина|столкнулась с|крупной|крупной|крестьянской|восстанием|возглавляемым|||изменником|казаком|Емельян|Пугачев Но затем Екатерина столкнулась с крупным крестьянским восстанием, возглавляемым ренегатом казаком Емельяном Пугачевым.

The rebels took many fortresses and towns, and stormed the city of Kazan, before they эти|повстанцы|захватили|много|крепостей|и|городов|и|штурмовали||город||Казань|прежде чем|они ||||||||tomaram|||||| Повстанцы захватили множество крепостей и городов, и штурмовали город Казань, прежде чем они

were finally defeated by the Russian army. были|наконец|разбиты|||русской|армией в конце концов были разбиты русской армией.

Catherine then forcibly incorporated the Zaporozhian Cossacks into the Russian Empire, and annexed Екатерина|затем|насильственно|включила||Запорожских|казаков|в||русскую|империю|и|аннексировала Екатерина затем насильно включила запорожских казаков в Российскую империю и аннексировала

the Crimean Khanate, a thorn in Russia's side for 300 years. этот|Крымский|ханство|одно|колючка|в|России|бок|на протяжении|лет ||||uma espinha||||| Крымское ханство, заноза в боку России на протяжении 300 лет.

Russia's new lands in the south were named Novorossiya, New Russia. России|новые|земли|на|юге||были|названы|Новороссия|Новая|Россия Новые земли России на юге были названы Новороссия.

Potemkin, Catherine's advisor and lover. Потемкин|Екатерины|советник|и|любовник Потемкина, советника и любовника Екатерины.

The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, exhausted by war and at the mercy of its neighbours, этот|||союз|истощенный|от|войны|и|на|милости|милость|соседей|своих|соседей ||||||||à||||| Польско-Литовская Республика, истощенная войной и находящаяся на милости своих соседей,

Poland did not re-emerge as an independent nation until 1918. Польша|не|не|||как|независимая|независимая|нация|до Польша не восстановила независимость до 1918 года.

live only in the so-called Pale of Settlement, and were excluded from most cities. жить|только|в||||Пале||оседлости|и|были|исключены|из|большинства|городов жили только в так называемом Черте оседлости и были исключены из большинства городов.

In France, the French Revolution led to the execution of King Louis XVI. в|Франции||французская|революция|привела|к||казни||короля|Луи|XVI Во Франции Французская революция привела к казни короля Людовика XVI.

Catherine was horrified, and in the last years of her reign, completely turned her back on Екатерина|была|в ужасе|и|в||последние|годы||её|правления|полностью|отвернулась|её|спину|к Екатерина была в ужасе, и в последние годы своего правления полностью отвернулась от

the liberal idealism of her youth. |либеральному|идеализму||её|молодости либерального идеализма своей юности.

history. истории истории.

She was succeeded by her son, Paul, a man obsessed by military discipline and detail, она|была|преемником|по|её|сын|Павел|человек||одержимый|военной|дисциплиной||и|деталями Её наследником стал сын Павел, человек, одержимый военной дисциплиной и деталями,

and opposed to all his mother's works. и противник всех дел своей матери.

Russia joined the Coalition of European Powers, fighting revolutionary France. Россия|присоединилась|к|коалиции|европейских||держав|сражающихся|революционной|Францией Россия присоединилась к Коалиции европейских держав, сражающейся с революционной Францией.

a palace coup. дворцовом||перевороте дворцовом перевороте.

He was succeeded by his 23-year-old son, Alexander, who shared his grandmother Catherine's vision он|вспомогательный глагол|унаследовал|от|его|||сын|Александр|который|разделял|его|бабушки|Екатерины|видение Его сменил 23-летний сын Александр, который разделял видение своей бабушки Екатерины

for a more modern Russian state. для|более||современного|русского|государства о более современном российском государстве.

But at Tilsit in 1807, the two young Emperors met, and made an alliance. но|в|Тильзите|в|два||молодых|императора|встретились|и|заключили|союз| Но в Тильзите в 1807 году два молодых императора встретились и заключили союз.

Russia attacked Sweden, annexing Finland, which became an autonomous Grand Duchy within Россия|напала на|Швецию|аннексируя|Финляндию|которая|стала|автономным||великим|княжеством|в рамках Россия напала на Швецию, аннексировав Финляндию, которая стала автономным Великим княжеством в составе

the Russian Empire. русского|Империи| Российской империи.

of the age. века|| эпохи.

Napoleon emerged victorious, but the Russian army escaped intact. Наполеон|вышел|победителем|но|русская|армия||у逃ила|невредимой Наполеон вышел победителем, но русская армия ушла невредимой.

And when Alexander refused to negotiate, the French army was forced to make a long retreat и|когда|Александр|отказался|к|вести переговоры|французская||армия|была|вынуждена|к|совершить|долгую||отступление И когда Александр отказался от переговоров, французская армия была вынуждена совершить долгий отход.

through the Russian winter, and was annihilated. через|русскую||зиму|и|была|уничтожена через русскую зиму и была уничтожена.

Napoleon had been dealt a mortal blow, and Russia, alongside Prussia, Austria and Britain, Наполеон|имел|был|нанесен|смертельный||удар|и|Россия|наряду с|Пруссией|Австрией|и|Британией Наполеон получил смертельный удар, а Россия, вместе с Пруссией, Австрией и Британией,

then led the fight back, which ended in the capture of Paris, and Napoleon's abdication. затем|возглавил|борьбу|борьба|назад|которая|закончилась|в|захвате|захват|Парижа||и|Наполеона|отречение затем возглавил контратаку, которая закончилась захватом Парижа и отречением Наполеона.

further revolutions in Europe. дальнейших|революций|в|Европе дальнейших революций в Европе.

Meanwhile in the Balkans and Caucasus, Russia had been waging intermittent wars against тем временем|в||Балканы|и|Кавказ|Россия|вспомогательный глагол|вспомогательный глагол|ведя|прерывные|войны|против Тем временем на Балканах и Кавказе Россия вела периодические войны против

But the peoples of the Caucasus bitterly resisted Russian rule. но|народы|народов|Кавказа||Кавказ|горько|сопротивлялись|русскому|владычеству Но народы Кавказа яростно сопротивлялись русскому владычеству.

Alexander's attempt to impose its authority on the region led to the Caucasian War, a Александра|попытка||навязать|свою|власть|на||регион|привела|к||Кавказской|войне| Попытка Александра навязать свою власть в этом регионе привела к Кавказской войне,

brutal conflict fought amongst the mountains and forests, that would drag on for nearly жестокий|конфликт|сражавшийся|среди||гор|и|лесов|который|бы|затянуться|на|почти|почти жестокому конфликту, который велся среди гор и лесов и продолжался почти

50 years. лет 50 лет.

But parts of Russian society had now developed an appetite for European-style liberalism, но|части|российской|российской|обществе|имели|теперь|развили|аппетит|аппетит|к|||либерализму Но в некоторых частях российского общества теперь возникла тяга к европейскому либерализму,

1825. 1825.

a military coup. военный||переворот военный переворот.

were hanged. были|повешены были повешены.

victory. победа победой.

Russian support for Greece in its war of independence against the Ottomans led to war between Russia российская|поддержка|для|Греции|в|её|войне|о|независимости|против|османов||привела|к|войне|между|Россией Российская поддержка Греции в ее войне за независимость против Османской империи привела к войне между Россией

and the Ottoman Empire. и|Османской|Османской|империей и Османской империей.

Russian victory brought further gains in the Black Sea region. русская|победа|принесла|дальнейшие|завоевания|в||Черном|море|регион Русская победа принесла дальнейшие успехи в Черноморском регионе.

A Polish revolt, led by young army officers, was crushed by Russian troops. |польское|восстание|возглавляемое||молодыми|армейскими|офицерами|было|подавлено||русскими|войсками Польское восстание, возглавляемое молодыми офицерами армии, было подавлено русскими войсками.

Alexander Pushkin, Russia's greatest poet, was shot in a duel, and two days later, died Александр|Пушкин|России|величайший|поэт|был|застрелен|в||дуэли|и|два|дня|спустя|умер Александр Пушкин, величайший поэт России, был застрелен на дуэли, а через два дня скончался

from his wounds. от|его|ран от полученных ран.

Gendarme, or Policeman of Europe. жандарм|или|полицейский|Европы| жандарм или полицейский Европы.

provocations by declaring war. провокации|путем|объявления|войны провокации, объявляя войну.

The Russian Black Sea Fleet inflicted a crushing defeat on the Turks at the Battle of Sinope. русский||Черноморский|флот|флот|нанес|одно|сокрушительное|поражение|на|турков|турков|на|битве|битва|при|Синопе Русский Черноморский флот нанес сокрушительное поражение туркам в битве при Синопе.

Constantinople, declared war on Russia. Константинополем|объявили|войну|против|России Константинополем, объявили войну России.

a gruelling year-long siege. одного|изнурительного|||осады изнурительной годовой осады.

In the Baltic, British and French warships blockaded the Russian capital, St. Petersburg. в|Балтике||британские|и|французские|военные корабли|блокировали|столицу|российскую|столицу|святой|Петербург В Балтике британские и французские военные корабли блокировали российскую столицу, Санкт-Петербург.

Russia was forced to sign a humiliating peace, withdraw its forces from the Black Sea, and Россия|была|вынуждена|к|подписать|мир|унизительный|мир|вывести|свои|силы|из|Черного||моря| Россия была вынуждена подписать унизительный мир, вывести свои войска из Черного моря и

Nicholas I was succeeded by his son, Alexander II. Николай|I|был|преемником|по|его|сын|Александр|II Николая I сменил его сын, Александр II.

power. власть власть.

The most obvious sign of Russia's backwardness was serfdom. самый|наиболее|очевидный|признак|России||отсталости|был|крепостное право Самым очевидным признаком отсталости России было крепостное право.

According to the 1857 census, more than a third of Russians were serfs, forced to work согласно|чтобы|||||||||||||работать Согласно переписи 1857 года, более трети русских были крепостными, вынужденными работать

to their children. к|их|детям их детям.

He was hailed as the Liberator. он|был|провозглашён|как||Освободитель Его провозгласили Освободителем.

Alexander's reforms would continue with the creation of the Zemstvo, provincial assemblies Александра|реформы|вспомогательный глагол|продолжатся|с||созданием|||земств|губернских|собраний Реформы Александра продолжились с созданием Земства, губернских собраний

In the Far East, Russia forced territorial concessions from a weakened China, leading в||Дальнем|Востоке|Россия|заставила|территориальные|уступки|от||ослабленной|Китаем|ведя На Дальнем Востоке Россия заставила Китай сделать территориальные уступки, что привело

to the founding of Vladivostok, Russia's major Pacific port. к||основанию||Владивостока|России|главный|Тихоокеанский|порт к основанию Владивостока, главного тихоокеанского порта России.

The ever-uprising by Poles and Lithuanians against Russian rule was once more crushed |||от|поляков|и|литовцев|против|русского|владычества|было|однажды|снова|подавлено Очередное восстание поляков и литовцев против русского владычества снова было подавлено

by the Russian army. армией||русской| русской армией.

In the Caucasus, Russia's long and brutal war against local tribes came to an end, with в||Кавказе|России|долгой|и|жестокой|война|против|местных|племен|пришла|к||концу|с На Кавказе закончилась долгая и жестокая война России против местных племен,

their leaders swearing oaths of loyalty to the Tsar. их|лидеры|присягая|клятвы|о|верности|к||царю их лидеры поклялись в верности царю.

In Central Asia, the Russian Empire was gradually expanding southwards. в|Центральной|Азии||Русская|Империя|была|постепенно|расширялась|на юг В Центральной Азии Российская империя постепенно расширялась на юг.

Russian armies defeated the Emirate of Bukhara and the Khanate of Kiva. Русские|армии|разбили||Эмират||Бухара|и||Ханство||Кива Русские армии разгромили эмират Бухары и ханство Кива.

century version of the Cold War. ||||Холодной|Войны века.

extend their own influence and limit the expansion of their rival, while avoiding direct military расширить|свое|собственное|влияние|и|ограничить|расширение|расширение|своего|соперника||в то время как|избегая|прямого|военного расширить свое влияние и ограничить расширение соперника, избегая прямого военного

confrontation. противостояния конфликта.

works of literature. произведений|литературы| произведений литературы.

The late 19th century was a cultural golden age for Russia, a period of literary greats этот|поздний|19-й|век|был|культурный||золотой|век|для|России|период||великих|литературных|гениев Поздний 19-й век был культурным золотым веком для России, периодом литературных гениев.

and outstanding composers. и|выдающихся|композиторов и выдающихся композиторов.

Russia, in support of nationalist revolts in the Balkans against Ottoman rule, went Россия|в|поддержку|националистических||восстаний|в||Балканах|против|Османского|владычества|пошла Россия, поддерживая националистические восстания на Балканах против османского владычества, снова пошла

to war with the Ottoman Empire once more. к|войне|с||Османской|империей|снова|еще

Russian troops crossed the Danube, then with Bulgarian help, fought to secure the vital русские|войска|пересекли||Дунай|затем|с|болгарской|помощью|сражались|чтобы|обеспечить||жизненно важный Русские войска пересекли Дунай, затем с помощью болгар, сражались за обеспечение жизненно важного

Shipka Pass. Шипка|перевал Перевала Шипка.

Then they launched a bloody five-month siege of Plevna in Bulgaria. затем|они|начали||кровавую|||осаду|на|Плевну|в|Болгарии Затем они начали кровавую пятимесячную осаду Плевны в Болгарии.

itself. само само.

But at the Congress of Berlin, Russia bowed to international pressure and accepted limited но|на||конгрессе|Берлине||Россия|уступила|перед|международным|давлением|и|приняла|ограниченные Но на Берлинском конгрессе Россия поддалась международному давлению и приняла ограниченные

gains in a settlement that also led to independence for Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, and later, выгоды|||||||||||||| преимущества в соглашении, которое также привело к независимости Румынии, Сербии, Черногории и позже,

Bulgaria. Болгария Болгарии.

II's limited reforms. II|ограниченные|реформы II.

There were several failed attempts to assassinate the Emperor, but as he prepared to approve там|были|несколько|неудачные|попытки|к|убить|Императора||но|когда|он|готовился|к|одобрить Было несколько неудачных попыток убить Императора, но когда он готовился одобрить

new constitutional reforms, he was killed in St. Petersburg by a bomb thrown by members новые конституционные реформы, он был убит в Санкт-Петербурге бомбой, брошенной членами

In 1881, Russian Emperor Alexander II was assassinated by left-wing terrorists in St. в|русский|император|Александр|II|был|убит|террористами|||террористами|в|Санкт-Петербурге В 1881 году русский император Александр II был убит левыми террористами в Санкт-Петербурге.

Petersburg. Петербург

Saviour on spilled blood. Спаситель|на|пролитой|крови Церковь Спаса на Крови.

"...in the midst of our great grief, the voice of God orders us to undertake courageously в|среде|середина|нашей||великой|скорби|голос|голоса|Бога||приказывает|нам|чтобы|предпринять|смело "...в разгар нашей великой скорби, голос Бога приказывает нам смело взяться за

the task of ruling, with faith in the strength and rightness of autocratic power." задачу|правления|автократической||||||||||власти| задачу правления, с верой в силу и правоту автократической власти."

The Tsar's secret police, the so-called Okhranka, was ordered to infiltrate Russia's many revolutionary этот|царя|секретная|полиция|так называемая|||охранка|была|приказано|чтобы|внедриться|российские|многие|революционные Секретная полиция царя, так называемая Охранка, была приказана infiltrировать многие революционные

groups. группы группы.

Those found guilty of plotting against the government were hanged, or sent into internal тех|найденных|виновными|в|заговоре|против|правительства||были|повешены|или|отправлены|в|внутреннюю Тех, кто был признан виновным в заговоре против правительства, вешали или отправляли в внутреннюю

exile in Siberia. ссылка|в|Сибирь ссылку в Сибирь.

a strong Russian national identity. сильной|сильной|русской|национальной|идентичности сильной русской национальной идентичности.

were spread that they were responsible for the assassination of the Emperor. были|распространены|что|они|были|ответственные|за||убийство|Императора|| распространились слухи, что они были ответственны за убийство Императора.

Now the government expelled 20,000 Jews from Moscow, and many who could, began to leave сейчас||правительство|изгнало|евреев|из|Москвы|и|многие|кто|могли|начали||покидать Теперь правительство изгнало 20 000 евреев из Москвы, и многие, кто мог, начали уезжать

the country. |страну из страны.

For the next 40 years, around 2 million Jews would leave Russia, most bound for the USA. в течение||следующих|лет|около|миллионов|евреев|бы|покидать|Россию|большинство|направляющиеся|в||США В течение следующих 40 лет около 2 миллионов евреев покинут Россию, большинство направится в США.

Work began on the Trans-Siberian Railway. работа|началась|над||||железной дорогой Начались работы над Транссибирской железной дорогой.

Completed in 1916, it remains the world's longest railway line, running 5,772 miles завершенная|в|она|остается||мировая|самая длинная|железнодорожная|линия|проходящая|миль Завершённая в 1916 году, она остаётся самой длинной железной дорогой в мире, протяжённостью 5772 мили.

from Moscow to Vladivostok. из|Москвы|до|Владивостока от Москвы до Владивостока.

Alexander III was succeeded by his son, Nicholas II. Александр|III|был|преемником|его|его|сын|Николай|II Александра III сменил его сын, Николай II.

His coronation was marred by tragedy, when 1,400 people were crushed to death at an open-air его|коронация|была|омрачена|трагедией|трагедия|когда|людей|были|раздавлены|до|смерти|на|открытом|| Его коронация была омрачена трагедией, когда 1,400 человек погибли в давке на открытом

celebration in Moscow. празднование|в|Москве праздновании в Москве.

China granted Russia the right to build a naval base at Port Arthur. Китай|предоставил|России|право||на|строительство|базы|военно-морской|база|в|Порт|Артур Китай предоставил России право построить военно-морскую базу в Порт-Артуре.

the giant Battle of Mukden. гигантской|гигантской|битве|при|Мукден огромной битве при Мукдене.

Russia was left with no option but to sign a humiliating peace, brokered by US President Россия|была|оставлена|с|никакой|вариант|но|чтобы|подписать|мир|унизительный||посредничеством|от|американского|президента Россия не имела другого выбора, кроме как подписать унизительный мир, посредником которого стал президент США.

Theodore Roosevelt. Теодор|Рузвельт Теодор Рузвельт.

demonstration. демонстрация демонстрация.

Tens of thousands of protesters marched to the Winter Palace to present a petition to десятки|из|тысяч|из|протестующих|маршировали|к|зимнему||дворцу|чтобы|представить|петицию||к Десятки тысяч протестующих marched к Зимнему дворцу, чтобы представить петицию

the Tsar, asking for better workers' rights and more political freedom. толпам||||||||более|| Царю, прося о лучших правах работников и большей политической свободе.

But instead, troops opened fire on the crowds, killing more than 100. Но вместо этого войска открыли огонь по толпе, убив более 100 человек.

The crew of the battleship Potemkin mutinied, killing their officers and taking control экипаж|команда|линейного|корабля|Потемкин||восстал|убивая|своих|офицеров|и|захватывая|контроль Экипаж броненосца Потемкин восстал, убив своих офицеров и взяв под контроль

of the ship. над|кораблем| корабль.

To defuse the crisis, Nicholas II reluctantly issued the October Manifesto, drafted under чтобы|разрядить|кризис|||II|неохотно|издал|октябрьское|манифесто|||под Чтобы разрядить кризис, Николай II неохотно издал Октябрьский манифест, составленный под

the supervision of Sergei Witte. над|надзор|над|Сергеем|Витте под руководством Сергея Витте.

It promised an elected assembly and new political rights, including freedom of speech, and was это|обещало|избранное||собрание|и|новые|политические|права|включая|свободу|слова||и|было Он обещал избранное собрание и новые политические права, включая свободу слова, и был

welcomed by most moderates. приветствовано|большинством|большинством|умеренных восторженно принят большинством умеренных.

For the first time, the Tsar would share power with an elected assembly, the State для|первого|раза|время||||||||||| Впервые царь поделится властью с избранным собранием, Государственной

Duma, though the Tsar had the right to veto its legislation and dissolve it at any time. ||царь|царь||||||||и||||| Думой, хотя царь имел право накладывать вето на его законодательство и распускать его в любое время.

Sergei Witte finally lost the Tsar's confidence and was dismissed. ||||царь||||| Сергей Витте в конце концов потерял доверие царя и был уволен.

The Tsar's new Prime Minister, Stolypin, introduced land reforms to help the peasants. царь||новый|премьер|министр|Столыпин|ввел|земельные|реформы|чтобы|помочь|крестьянам|крестьянам Новый премьер-министр царя, Столыпин, ввел земельные реформы, чтобы помочь крестьянам.

But dealing severely with Russia's would-be revolutionaries, so much so that the hangman's но|имея дело|строго|с|российскими|||революционерами|так|много|так|что||палача Но жестоко расправляясь с российскими революционерами, настолько, что виселица

noose got a new nickname, Stolypin's necktie. получила новое прозвище, галстук Столыпина.

But having survived several attempts on his life, Stolypin was shot and killed by an assassin Но, пережив несколько покушений на свою жизнь, Столыпин был застрелен убийцей

at the Kiev Opera House. в Киевском оперном театре.

circle, thanks to his unique ability to ease the suffering of the Tsar's haemophiliac son, круг|благодаря|к|его|уникальной|способности|к|облегчить||страдания|от||царского|гемофильного|сына благодаря своей уникальной способности облегчать страдания царевича-гемофилика,

Alexei. Алексея Алексея.

Despite sporadic acts of terrorism, Russia now had the fastest-growing economy in Europe. несмотря на|спорадические|акты|терроризма||Россия|теперь|имела||||экономику|в|Европе Несмотря на спорадические акты терроризма, Россия теперь имела самую быстрорастущую экономику в Европе.

Russia's future seemed bright. российское|будущее|казалось|светлым Будущее России казалось светлым.

In 1914, in Sarajevo, a Slav nationalist assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian в|в|Сараево|один|славянский|националист|убил|архидюк|Франц|Фердинанд|наследник|к|австро-венгерскому|| В 1914 году в Сараево славянский националист убил эрцгерцога Франца Фердинанда, наследника Австро-Венгерской империи.

throne, sparking a European crisis. трон|вызывая|один|европейский|кризис трон, вызвавший европейский кризис.

When Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, Emperor Nicholas ordered the Russian army когда|||объявила|войну|против|Сербии|император|Николай|приказал|русской|русской|армии Когда Австро-Венгрия объявила войну Сербии, император Николай приказал российской армии

Austria-Hungary's ally, Germany, saw Russian mobilisation as a threat, and declared war. ||союзник|Германия|увидела|русскую|мобилизацию|как|угрозу||и|объявила|войну Союзник Австро-Венгрии, Германия, расценил российскую мобилизацию как угрозу и объявил войну.

to war. к|войне к войне.

World War One had begun. мир|война|первая|имела|началась Первая мировая война началась.

the Missouri and Lakes. озеро|Миссури|и|озера Миссури и озерами.

There was greater success against Austria-Hungary, but that too came at a high price. там|был|больший|успех|против|||но|это|тоже|пришло|с|высоким|высокой|ценой Существовал больший успех против Австро-Венгрии, но и это также имело высокую цену.

In 1916, Russia's Brusilov offensive against Austro-Hungarian forces was one of the most в|российская|Брусилова|наступление|против|||сил|было|одно|из|самых|самых В 1916 году Брусиловское наступление России против австро-венгерских сил стало одним из самых

successful Allied attacks of the war. ||||русская| успешных атак союзников в войне.

In Petrograd, Rasputin, whose alleged influence over the Tsar's family was despised by certain в|Петрограде|Распутин|чье|предполагаемое|влияние|на||царской|семье|был|ненавидимо|некоторыми|определенными В Петрограде был убит Распутин, чье предполагаемое влияние на семью царя вызывало ненависть у некоторых

Russian aristocrats, was murdered, possibly with the help of British agents. ||был|убит|возможно|с||помощью||британских|агентов русских аристократов, возможно, с помощью британских агентов.

At the front, losses were enormous. на||фронте|потери|были|огромные На фронте потери были огромными.

Duke Michael, who effectively declined the offer. князя Михаила, который фактически отклонил это предложение.

Russia was now a republic. Россия|была|теперь|республикой|республика Россия теперь была республикой.

military chaos. военный|хаос военный хаос в России.

The Petrograd Soviet was so powerful, it was effectively a rival government, especially этот|Петроград|совет|был|так|мощным|он|был|фактически|конкурентом|правительством||особенно Петроградский Совет был настолько мощным, что фактически стал соперничающим правительством, особенно

as discontent with the provisional government continued to grow. так как|недовольство|с|временным|правительством||продолжало|к|расти по мере нарастания недовольства временным правительством.

arrested its members. арестовали|его|членов арестовали его членов.

Lenin and the Bolsheviks were now in charge. Ленин|и||большевики|были|теперь|в|власти Ленин и большевики теперь были у власти.

Russia had been thrown upon a bold and dangerous course. Россия|имела|была|брошена|на||смелый|и|опасный|курс Россия была брошена на смелый и опасный курс.

Under a Marxist-inspired revolutionary party, it would now seek to create the world's first Под||||революционной|партией|она|будет|теперь|стремиться||создать||мира|первое Под руководством революционной партии, вдохновленной марксизмом, она теперь будет стремиться создать первое в мире

communist state. коммунистическое|государство коммунистическое государство.

civil wars. гражданских|войн гражданских войн.

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