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Crash Course Philisophy 17-46, Where Does Your Mind Reside?: Crash Course Philosophy #22

Where Does Your Mind Reside?: Crash Course Philosophy #22

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On September 13, 1848, a freak accident caused an explosion

that drove an iron rod straight into the skull of a worker named Phineas Gage.

A metal rod almost as tall as he was went through his skull – and he didn't die.

But, the Phineas from before the accident, and the one who lived after it, didn't seem to have a lot in common, personality-wise.

The Phineas with no hole in his brain was a proper, hard-working gentleman.

And the Phineas with the injured brain was, uh, sort of a belligerent jerk.

Phineas' brain was changed – and his personality changed too.

This misfortune has provided lots of fodder for researchers of psychology and neurology.

But the case of Phineas Gage holds lessons for philosophers too.

It provides us with some rare, hard evidence that a part of us that's historically been thought of as non-physical

– our personality – is actually, directly affected by what happens to us physically.

Which raises the question: Where does our mind reside?

[Theme Music]

Now, not a lot of contemporary scientists would be all that surprised that an injury like the one Gage suffered could cause such a radical change.

That's because the dominant view held in much of Western science is what we call reductive physicalism.

This is the view that the world is made only of physical stuff, including us.

By this logic, everything about me, and you, can be explained in terms of our bodies

– our brains, hormones, and neurotransmitters.

So if everything about Phineas's personality could be explained in terms of his brain,

it's no shock that a radical change in his brain would bring about a radical change in his personality.

This same belief is at work when a psychiatrist prescribes antidepressants to a patient.

Change the patient's brain chemistry, change the patient's mood.

Now, physicalism may be the default scientific position, but remember, way back in episode 5,

our old friend Rene Descartes introduced us to cogito ergo sum – I think, therefore, I am.

Descartes believed that he could cast doubt on the existence of his body, but not the existence of his mind.

The fact that he could doubt one but not the other told him that he must be made of two different kinds of stuff.

This view, known as Substance Dualism, says that the world is made of both physical stuff and mental stuff.

Substance dualists say that minds are a separate, nonphysical substance that cannot be reduced to,

or explained in terms of, physical stuff, like brains.

And in this view, some things – like God – are pure mind, and other things – like rocks – are pure matter.

But humans, well, we're kinda special.

We're the only kind of thing that combines both stuffs in one being – both body and mind.

What's more, these two substances appear to interact with each other inside of us.

This is called interactionism.

When I “make up my mind” to do something,

I have the power to compel my body to do as I please –

to get up off the couch and make myself a nice pb and j, for example.

What's more, my mental states seem to have the ability to affect my physical states even against my will.

You ever notice how many people who are grieving or under a lot of stress, for example, often get physically sick?

Likewise, our bodies also appear to be able to affect our minds.

Like when you're so hungry you just can't focus on what your teacher is saying at all.

Or how a pure physical pleasure – like having a good cuddle with your cat – can pull you out of a bad mood.

Interactionists say that what's going on is that our two substances – minds and bodies – are interacting with each other.

But, if you think about it, this is actually a pretty puzzling proposition.

How can a purely mental thing have any affect on a purely physical thing?

The puzzle of how minds and bodies can interact with each other is known as the Mind-Body Problem.

This is the problem that makes us wonder:

How can my body have a separate entity called a mind lurking inside of it –

controlling it, and being controlled by it?

What would tether my mind to this body in particular –

why couldn't my mind just go running off on its own, or take a dip into other bodies to see what it's like in there?

Descartes' answer, frankly, wasn't all that satisfying.

He said that the mind is tethered to the body at the pineal gland – located at the base of the brain –

and that all mind-body interactions are filtered through that portal, if you will, between the mind and the body.

But that really only pushes the problem back, without solving it,

since the pineal gland is part of the physical body.

Many modern philosophers of mind, seeing no way to solve the mind-body problem,

have felt compelled to abandon substance dualism altogether.

Some are happy to be physicalists, but others are convinced that there are some parts of

human experience that simply can't be boiled down to brains.

To see what they think is being left out, let's head over to the Thought Bubble for some Flash Philosophy.

Contemporary Australian philosopher Frank Jackson presents us with the thought experiment of Mary,

a woman who has spent her entire life in a black and white room, learning everything via a black and white television.

While locked in this room, Mary becomes a neurophysicist specializing in the science of color.

She learns everything there is to know about light, optics, the physics of color,

and how it affects our sensory organs, but she has never seen it for herself.

So here's the question:

When Mary finally walks out of the room and sees color for the first time, has Mary learned something new?

Jackson devised this thought experiment as an argument against reductive physicalism.

Because, Jackson says, the qualitative experience of seeing a color – say, red – isn't the same as knowing facts about red.

If everything could be explained in terms of the physical, then when Mary finally saw red,

it wouldn't have contributed to her understanding at all.

It wouldn't have told her anything that she didn't already know.

Thanks, Thought Bubble!

What's missing from a physicalist account, many argue, is what are known as qualia

– instances of subjective, first-person experience.

Qualia are what it feels like to stub your toe,

or take the first bite out of a slice of pizza,

or to learn that you have been deeply betrayed by a trusted friend.

It's what Mary is said to gain when she steps out of the room and sees color for the first time.

Physicalists respond to thought experiments like Jackson's by arguing that they beg the question.

Begging the question, you'll recall, is a philosophical fallacy in which the premises

assume the conclusion they're supposed to be proving.

Jackson's thought experiment assumes that Mary learns something new when she steps out of the room.

But, if physicalism is true, and if she really knows everything physical about color,

then of course seeing it for herself isn't going to add to her understanding of it in any way.

Now, physicalists argue that their case is making progress,

as we learn more and more about the physical processes of the mind.

Well that's not really satisfying, because we want an answer, not a promissory note.

But, to be fair, physicalists have only been at work for a few decades,

while dualists have been bashing their heads against the mind-body problem for centuries.

But not everybody falls cleanly into either the physicalist or the dualist camp.

The Mary case, and other arguments like it, convince some people that they have to maintain their commitment to dualism,

even though they can't see a solution to the mind-body problem.

Some of those people adopt a view called epiphenomenalism.

This view says that physical states can give rise to mental states, but mental states can't affect physical states.

So by this thinking, your beliefs, desires, and temperaments do exist,

but they have no power over anything physical about you.

Which might sound kind of weird and unconvincing.

But then there's contemporary British philosopher Colin McGinn, who advocates a view called mysterianism.

This says that the question of consciousness is unsolvable by human minds.

It's not that McGinn thinks we're dummies.

He thinks humans are natural knowers – just give us a problem and we can figure it out.

But not this.

The reason, he says, is that our brains are compartmentalized.

The way we understand our mind is through reflection.

It's deeply personal and subjective.

But the way we understand our brains and bodies is objective, and verifiable.

And those two modes of understanding just don't mix.

No amount of reflection could lead to any claims about neurons firing,

and no amount of empirical research is going to give rise to what it's like to see color through someone else's eyes.

Our brains just don't have a compartment that can piece together those different modes of evidence.

The mind-body problem hasn't been solved, and physicalism hasn't been proven, because

both of those things require our brains to do something they can't do.

So what do you think?

Is your mind a separate substance, riding around in your body until it dies?

Can the complicated thing that is you – that thinks and feels and desires and hurts – be

reduced to a purely physical thing?

Did Mary learn something new? Is it possible to know?

Well that is up to your mind to figure out.

Today we talked about theories about where the mind resides.

We learned about reductive physicalism, substance dualism, and mysterianism.

And next time, we're going to think about these issues some more,

with the help of some of my favorite kinds of potential persons – robots!

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Crash Course Philosophy is produced in association with PBS Digital Studios.

You can head over to their channel and check out a playlist of the latest episodes from shows like

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This episode of Crash Course was filmed in the Doctor Cheryl C. Kinney Crash Course Studio

with the help of these awesome people and our equally fantastic graphics team is Thought Cafe.

Where Does Your Mind Reside?: Crash Course Philosophy #22 ¿Dónde reside tu mente? Curso acelerado de filosofía nº 22 あなたの心はどこにあるのか?クラッシュコース哲学 第22回 Onde reside a tua mente? Curso Rápido de Filosofia #22 Где обитает ваш разум? Краткий курс философии #22 Де знаходиться ваш розум? Прискорений курс філософії #22 你的思想驻扎在哪里?:哲学速成课程#22

Crash Course Philosophy is brought to you by Squarespace. كراش كورس الفلسفة مقدم لكم من قبل سكوير سبيس Crash Course Filozofia powstaje dzięki Squarespace. Crash Course Filosofia é um oferecimento de Squarespace.

Squarespace: share your passion with the world. سكوير سبيس: شارك شغفك مع العالم Squarespace: podziel się swoją pasją ze światem. Squarescape: Divida sua paixão com o mundo.

On September 13, 1848, a freak accident caused an explosion في الثالث عشر من سبتمبر عام 1848 تسببت حادثة غريبة بانفجار، 13 września 1848 roku niecodzienny wypadek spowodował eksplozję, No dia 13 de Setembro de 1848, um acidente bizarro causou uma explosão

that drove an iron rod straight into the skull of a worker named Phineas Gage. مما دفع بقضيب حديدي نحو جمجمة العامل فينيس غايج مباشرة która wystrzeliła metalowy pręt prosto w czaszkę robotnika zwanego Phineas Gage. que levou uma haste de ferro diretamente ao crânio de um trabalhador chamado Phineas Gage.

A metal rod almost as tall as he was went through his skull – and he didn't die. القضيب المعدني الذي كان طوله بطول الرجل تقريبًا اخترق جمجمته و لكنه لم يمت. Pręt ten, który był prawie tak długi, jak on wysoki, przeszył jego czaszkę — lecz robotnik przeżył. Uma haste de metal quase do tamanho dele atravessou seu crânio - e ele não morreu.

But, the Phineas from before the accident, and the one who lived after it, didn't seem to have a lot in common, personality-wise. لكن، فينيس قبل الحادث وفينيس الذي عاش بعد ذلك، لم يبدُ أنهما يمتلكان الكثير من الأمور المشتركة، من ناحية الشخصية Phineas sprzed wypadku i Phineas po wypadku nie mieli jednak wiele wspólnego, jeśli chodzi o osobowość. Mas, o Phineas de antes do acidente, e o que viveu após ele, não pareciam ter muito em comum, em termos de personalidade.

The Phineas with no hole in his brain was a proper, hard-working gentleman. فينيس بدون الثقب في دماغه كان سيدًا محترمًا و مجتهدًا Phineas bez dziury w mózgu był przykładnym, pracowitym dżentelmenem, O Phineas sem-buraco-no-cérebro era um respeitável, cavalheiro trabalhador.

And the Phineas with the injured brain was, uh, sort of a belligerent jerk. و فينيس صاحب الدماغ المتضرر كان نوعًا ما وغدًا وعدوانيًا a Phineas z uszkodzonym mózgiem był, hm, agresywnym gnojkiem. E o Phineas com o cérebro danificado era, uh, um tipo de babaca agressivo.

Phineas' brain was changed – and his personality changed too. تغير دماغ فينيس وتغيرت شخصيته أيضًا W mózgu Phineasa zaszła zmiana, a ta pociągnęła za sobą zmiany w osobowości. O cérebro de Phineas mudou - e sua personalidade mudou também.

This misfortune has provided lots of fodder for researchers of psychology and neurology. سوء الحظ هذا قدم العديد من الفرص للباحثين في علم النفس وعلم الأعصاب To nieszczęście zapewniło psychologom i neurologom ogrom materiału badawczego, Este infortúnio providenciou muitos recursos para pesquisadores de psicologia e neurologia.

But the case of Phineas Gage holds lessons for philosophers too. لكن حالة فينيس غايج حملت دروسًا للفلاسفة أيضًا jednak i filozofowie mogą wyciągnąć z niego pewną lekcję. Mas o caso de Phineas Gage traz lições também para os filósofos.

It provides us with some rare, hard evidence that a part of us that's historically been thought of as non-physical إنها تقدم لنا دليلًا نادراً ودامغًا بأن جزءًا منا والذي تم اعتقاده على مر التاريخ "غير مادي" Przypadek ten dostarcza nam rzadkiego, ale niezbitego dowodu, że ta część nas, którą kiedyś uważano za niefizyczną Ele nos providência uma rara, sólida evidência que uma parte de nós que historicamente foi pensada como não física

– our personality – is actually, directly affected by what happens to us physically. -هويتنا- في الحقيقة يتأثر مباشرة بما يحدث لنا ماديًا — nasza osobowość — jest w rzeczywistości bezpośrednio powiązana z naszą fizycznością. - nossa personalidade - é de fato, diretamente afetada pelo que nos acontece fisicamente.

Which raises the question: Where does our mind reside? و الذي يطرح السؤال: أين يوجد عقلنا؟ I tu nasuwa się pytanie: gdzie znajduje się nasz umysł? Isto levanta a questão: Onde nossa mente reside?

[Theme Music] [Motyw muzyczny] [Música Tema]

Now, not a lot of contemporary scientists would be all that surprised that an injury like the one Gage suffered could cause such a radical change. الآن، ليس الكثير من العلماء المعاصرين سيكونون بتلك الدهشة بأن إصابة مثل التي عانى منها غايج قد تتسبب بتغيير جذري W obecnych czasach niewielu naukowców byłoby zaskoczonych tym, że podobne nieszczęście może wywołać tak radykalne zmiany, Agora, não muitos dos cientistas contemporâneos ficariam tão surpresos ao ver que uma lesão como a de Gage poderia causar mudanças radicais.

That's because the dominant view held in much of Western science is what we call reductive physicalism. ذلك بسبب النظرة السائدة التي يتبناها أغلب العلم الغربي والتي نسميها الإختزالية الفيزيائية a to dlatego że dominujący pogląd zachodniej nauki na świat to fizykalizm. Isto porque a visão dominante mantida em boa parte da ciência Ocidental é o que nós chamamos de Reducionismo Fisicalista.

This is the view that the world is made only of physical stuff, including us. هذه النظرة التي صنعها العالم للأشياء المادية فقط بما فيها نحن Fizykalizm to pogląd mówiący, że świat składa się wyłącznie z fizycznej materii, włączając nas. Essa é a visão de que o mundo é feito apenas de coisas físicas, incluindo nós.

By this logic, everything about me, and you, can be explained in terms of our bodies بهذا المنطق، كل شيء عني وعنك من الممكن تفسيره وفقاً لأجسادنا W ten sposób wszystko, co dotyczy mnie lub ciebie, może być wyjaśnione w granicach naszego ciała Por esta lógica, tudo sobre mim, e você, pode ser explicado em termos de nossos corpos

– our brains, hormones, and neurotransmitters. وأدمغتنا، وهرموناتنا والناقلات العصبية — naszego mózgu, hormonów i neuroprzekaźników. - nossos cérebros, hormônios, e neurotransmissores.

So if everything about Phineas's personality could be explained in terms of his brain, إذًا، إذا كان كل شيء حول هوية فينيس من الممكن تفسيره وفقاً لدماغه A więc jeśli wszystko na temat Phineasa może być wyjaśnione w zakresie jego mózgu, Então se tudo sobre a personalidade de Phineas pode ser explicado em termos de seu cérebro,

it's no shock that a radical change in his brain would bring about a radical change in his personality. لن تكون مفاجأة بأن تغييرًا جذريًا في دماغه سيؤدي إلى تغيير جذري في شخصيته nie jest wielkim szokiem, że tak wielka zmiana w strukturze tego organu wywołała tak wielkie zmiany w jego osobowości. não é nenhuma surpresa que uma mudança radical em seu cérebro traria uma mudança radical em sua personalidade.

This same belief is at work when a psychiatrist prescribes antidepressants to a patient. هذا الاعتقاد نفسه يعمل حينما يصف طبيب نفسي مضادًا للاكتئاب لمريض Ten sam pogląd znajduje zastosowanie, gdy psychiatra przepisuje pacjentowi antydepresanty. Essa mesma crença está presente quando um psiquiatra prescreve antidepressivos para um paciente.

Change the patient's brain chemistry, change the patient's mood. غيّر كيمياء دماغ المريض فيتغير مزاج المريض Zmieniając chemię mózgu pacjenta, zmienisz też jego nastrój. Altere a química do cérebro do paciente, altere o humor do paciente.

Now, physicalism may be the default scientific position, but remember, way back in episode 5, و الآن، المذهب الفيزيائي قد يكون الموقف العلمي الافتراضي، لكن تذكر وبالعودة للحلقة الخامسة Jednak choć fizykalizm może być punktem wyjścia dla nauki, przypomnij sobie odcinek 5. Agora, Fisicalismo pode ser a posição científica padrão, mas lembre-se, lá atrás no episódio 5,

our old friend Rene Descartes introduced us to cogito ergo sum – I think, therefore, I am. صديقنا القديم رينيه ديكارت قدَّمنا لـ"أنا أفكر إذن أنا موجود" i naszego starego przyjaciela Kartezjusza, który przedstawił nam pogląd „Cogito ergo sum” — „Myślę, więc jestem”. nosso velho amigo Rene Descartes nos introduziu ao Cogito Ergo Sum - Penso, logo existo.

Descartes believed that he could cast doubt on the existence of his body, but not the existence of his mind. يعتقد ديكارت أنه من الممكن أن يشكك في وجود جسده، لكن ليس في وجود عقله Kartezjusz wierzył, że może podać w wątpliwość istnienie swojego ciała, ale nie swojego umysłu. Descartes acreditava que ele poderia duvidar da existência de seu corpo, mas não da existência de sua mente.

The fact that he could doubt one but not the other told him that he must be made of two different kinds of stuff. وحقيقة أنه يمكن أن يشكك في أحدهما لكن ليس في الآخر، أخبرته أنه بالتأكيد مخلوق من نوعين مختلفين من الأشياء Fakt, że może wątpić w jedno, ale nie w drugie, podsunął mu wniosek, że są one zrobione z odmiennych typów materii. O fato que ele poderia duvidar de um mas não de outro, disse-lhe que ele deveria ser feito de dois tipos de coisas diferentes.

This view, known as Substance Dualism, says that the world is made of both physical stuff and mental stuff. هذه الرؤية عرفت بـثنائية المادة، وتقول بأن العالم مصنوع من أشياء مادية وأشياء عقلية Ten pogląd, zwany dualizmem substancjalnym, mówi, że świat składa się z materii fizycznej i materii psychicznej. Essa visão, conhecida como Dualismo Cartesiano, diz que o mundo é feito de ambas substâncias físicas e mentais.

Substance dualists say that minds are a separate, nonphysical substance that cannot be reduced to, ثنائية المادة تقول بأن العقول ملَكة مستقلة وغير مادية والتي لا يمكن اختزالها Dualiści uważają, że umysł to odmienna, niefizyczna substancja, której nie można sprowadzić do Dualistas cartesianos dizem que mentes são separadas, substâncias não-físicas que não podem ser reduzidas a,

or explained in terms of, physical stuff, like brains. أو تفسيرها وفقًا لأشياء مادية مثل الأدمغة lub wyjaśnić poprzez materię fizyczną, jaką jest mózg. ou explicada em termos de, substâncias físicas, como cérebros.

And in this view, some things – like God – are pure mind, and other things – like rocks – are pure matter. و في هذه الرؤية، بعض الأشياء -مثل الإله- تكون عقل خالص وأشياء أخرى -مثل الأحجار- تكون مواد خالصة Ten pogląd mówi też, że niektóre rzeczy — jak np. bóg — to czysty umysł, a inne — jak np. kamienie — to czysta materia, E nessa visão, algumas coisas - como Deus - são puramente mentais, e outros coisas - como pedras - são puramente matéria.

But humans, well, we're kinda special. لكن البشر، حسنًا نحن نوعًا ما مميزون za to my, ludzie, jesteśmy nieco wyjątkowi. Mas os humanos, bem, nós somos um pouco especiais.

We're the only kind of thing that combines both stuffs in one being – both body and mind. نحن النوع الوحيد من الأشياء التي تضم كلا الشيئين في كائن واحد - الجسد و العقل سوياً- Jesteśmy bowiem jedynymi istotami, które łączą dwie materie w jedno — mamy ciało i umysł. Nós somos a única espécie de coisa que combina ambas as substâncias em um ser - ambos corpo e mente.

What's more, these two substances appear to interact with each other inside of us. والأكثر من ذلك، أن هذه المادتين تُظهران تفاعلاً مع بعضهما البعض داخلنا Co więcej, te dwie substancje w naszym wnętrzu zdają się oddziaływać na siebie wzajemnie. Além do mais, essas substâncias aparentam interagir uma com a outra dentro de nós.

This is called interactionism. و هذا يسمى بـالتفاعلية الثنائية Nazywa się to interakcjonizmem. Isso é chamado de Interacionismo.

When I “make up my mind” to do something, حينما "أقرر" القيام بشيء ما Kiedy "decyduję się" coś zrobić, Quando eu "decido" que vou fazer algo,

I have the power to compel my body to do as I please – فإني أملك القوة لإجبار جسدي على فعل ما أريده mam siłę, żeby zmusić moje ciało do wykonania moich rozkazów — Eu tenho o poder de compelir meu corpo para fazer o que quero -

to get up off the couch and make myself a nice pb and j, for example. مثلاً: النهوض من الأريكة وإعداد شطيرة لذيذة بزبدة الفول السوداني والمربى podnieść się z kanapy i zrobić sobie choćby kanapkę. levantar do sofá e me fazer um um belo sanduíche, por exemplo.

What's more, my mental states seem to have the ability to affect my physical states even against my will. والأكثر من هذا، أن حالتي العقلية يبدو أنها تملك القدرة على التأثير بحالتي المادية رغمًا عني Stany mentalne mają ponadto wpływ na stany fizyczne, i to wbrew mojej woli. Além do mais, meus estados mentais parecem ter a habilidade de afetar meus estados físicos mesmo contra minha vontade.

You ever notice how many people who are grieving or under a lot of stress, for example, often get physically sick? هل لاحظت كم من الأشخاص الحزينين أو ممّن هم تحت الكثير من الضغط -على سبيل المثال- غالبًا ما يمرضون جسديًا؟ Zauważyłeś może, jak wiele osób, które są smutne lub odczuwają dużo stresu, zapada na fizyczne choroby? Você já percebeu quantas pessoas que estão sofrendo ou estão sob muito estresse, por exemplo, frequentemente ficam fisicamente doentes?

Likewise, our bodies also appear to be able to affect our minds. وكذلك أجسادنا أيضًا تبدو قادرة على التأثير على عقولنا Podobnie nasze ciało zadaje się wpływać na nasz umysł. Da mesma forma, nossos corpos também aparentam serem capazes de afetarem nossas mentes.

Like when you're so hungry you just can't focus on what your teacher is saying at all. مثلاً حينما تكون جائعاً جدًا فلا تستطيع التركيز على ما يقوله معلمك أبداً Kiedy jesteś głodny, kompletnie nie możesz się skupić na tym, co mówi nauczyciel, Como quando você está com tanta fome que você não consegue se concentrar em nada do que seu professor está dizendo.

Or how a pure physical pleasure – like having a good cuddle with your cat – can pull you out of a bad mood. أو كيف أن المتعة الجسدية الخالصة - مثل الحصول على عناق جيد مع قطتك - من الممكن أن تخرجك من مزاجك السيء a z drugiej strony zwykła fizyczna przyjemność — jak przytulenie ukochanego kota — może wyrwać cię ze złego nastroju. Ou quando um prazer puramente físico - como fazer carinho no seu gato - pode lhe tirar de um mau humor.

Interactionists say that what's going on is that our two substances – minds and bodies – are interacting with each other. تقول النظرية التفاعلية بأن ما يحدث هو أن المادتين -عقولنا و أجسادنا- تتفاعلان مع بعضهما البعض Interakcjoniści mówią, że te dwie substancje — umysł i ciało — wchodzą z interakcje między sobą. Interacionistas dizem que o que está acontecendo é que nossas duas substâncias - mentes e corpos - estão interagindo uma com a outra.

But, if you think about it, this is actually a pretty puzzling proposition. لكن حينما تفكر حيال ذلك فإن هذا في الواقع مسألة محيرة جدًا Jednak jak się dłużej nad tym zastanowić, to nieco pokręcona propozycja. Mas, se você pensar a respeito, isso é na verdade uma proposição bem intrigante.

How can a purely mental thing have any affect on a purely physical thing? كيف بإمكان شيء عقلي خالص أن يملك أي تأثير على شيء مادي خالص؟ Jak coś czysto mentalnego może w jakikolwiek sposób wpływać na coś fizycznego? Como uma coisa puramente mental pode afetar uma coisa puramente física?

The puzzle of how minds and bodies can interact with each other is known as the Mind-Body Problem. المعضلة بشأن كيف أن العقول والأجساد باستطاعتها أن تتفاعل مع بعضها البعض تعرف بـ "إشكالية العقل و الجسد" Problem sposobu, w jaki wpływają na siebie wzajemnie umysł i ciało, jest znany jako dylemat psychofizyczny. O enigma de como nossas mentes e corpos interagem um com outro é chamado de Problema Mente-Corpo.

This is the problem that makes us wonder: هذه الإشكالية جعلتنا نتسائل Sprawia on, że zaczynamy się zastanawiać: Esse é um problema que nos faz ponderar:

How can my body have a separate entity called a mind lurking inside of it – كيف بإمكان جسدي أن يملك كيانًا منفصلاً يدعى بالعقل يكمن داخله؟ jak moje ciało może zawierać oddzielną jednostkę zwaną umysłem, Como meu corpo pode ter uma entidade separada chamada mente se escondendo dele -

controlling it, and being controlled by it? ويسيطر جسدي عليه، ويكون جسدي تحت سيطرته؟ która je kontroluje i jest przez nie kontrolowana? o controlando, e sendo controlado por ela?

What would tether my mind to this body in particular – ما الذي يربط عقلي بهذا الجسد تحديدًا؟ Co trzyma mój umysł akurat w moim ciele O que poderia unir minha mente neste corpo em particular -

why couldn't my mind just go running off on its own, or take a dip into other bodies to see what it's like in there? لمَ لا يستطيع عقلي أن يهرب من تلقاء نفسه، أو أن ينقب في أجساد الآخرين ليرى ماذا يوجد هناك؟ i czemu nie może on poruszać się po świecie samodzielnie lub przenieść się do innego ciała? porque minha mente não pode sair por aí sozinha, ou visitar outros corpos para ver como eles são?

Descartes' answer, frankly, wasn't all that satisfying. إجابة ديكارت، و بصدق لم تكن مرضية تماماً Odpowiedź Kartezjusza, szczerze mówiąc, nie jest zbyt satysfakcjonująca. A resposta de Descartes, francamente, não é tão satisfatória.

He said that the mind is tethered to the body at the pineal gland – located at the base of the brain – قال بأن العقل مربوط مع الجسد عند الغدة الصنوبرية -تقع في قاعدة الدماغ - Twierdził on, że umysł jest przywiązany do ciała w szyszynce — gruczole u podstawy mózgu — Ele disse que a mente é unida ao corpo na glândula pineal - localizada na base do cérebro -

and that all mind-body interactions are filtered through that portal, if you will, between the mind and the body. و أن جميع تفاعلات العقل-الجسد تصفَّى عبر ذلك المنفذ، إن صح التعبير، بين العقل و الجسد i że wszelkie interakcje między umysłem a ciałem są przepuszczane przez ten właśnie portal. e que todas as interações mente-corpo são filtradas por este portal, entre a mente e o corpo.

But that really only pushes the problem back, without solving it, لكن هذا فقط يدفع بالمشكلة للخلف دون حلها Jednak w ten sposób wracamy tylko do punktu wyjścia bez rozwiązania problemu, Mas isto na verdade apenas retoma o problema, sem resolvê-lo,

since the pineal gland is part of the physical body. نظرًا لأن الغدة الصنوبرية جزء من الجسد المادي jako że szyszynka jest częścią fizycznego ciała. já que a glândula pineal é parte do corpo físico.

Many modern philosophers of mind, seeing no way to solve the mind-body problem, العديد من فلاسفة العقل الحديثين، رأوا بأنه لا يمكن حل إشكالية العقل-الجسد Wielu współczesnych filozofów umysłu, nie widząc sposobu na rozwiązanie dylematu psychofizycznego, Muitos dos filósofos modernos da mente, vendo nenhuma maneira de resolver o problema mente-corpo,

have felt compelled to abandon substance dualism altogether. وشعروا بأنهم مضطرين للتخلي عن الثنائية المادية بالإجمال jest zmuszonych kompletnie porzucić dualizm substancjalny. sentiram-se compelidos a abandonar o dualismo cartersiano inteiramente.

Some are happy to be physicalists, but others are convinced that there are some parts of البعض سعداء بأن يكونوا ماديين لكن الآخرين مقتنعين بأن هناك بعض الأجزاء Niektórzy z nich z radością przyjmują fizykalizm, lecz niektórzy są przekonani, że niektóre części Alguns são felizes em serem fisicalistas, mas alguns outros estão convencidos que há algumas partes da

human experience that simply can't be boiled down to brains. من التجربة البشرية التي ببساطة لا يمكن أن تلخص للأدمغة ludzkiej percepcji po prostu nie mogą być sprowadzone do czynności mózgu. experiência humana que não pode simplesmente ser restringidas aos cérebros.

To see what they think is being left out, let's head over to the Thought Bubble for some Flash Philosophy. لرؤية ما يعتقدون أنه تم استبعاده، دعونا نتوجه لفقاعة التفكير لعرض فلسفي سريع، Żeby zobaczyć, czego tu brakuje, przejdźmy do Thought Bubble na seans filozoficzny. Para ver o que eles pensam sobre o que está sendo ignorado, vamos até a Thought Bubble para um pouco de Flash Philosophy.

Contemporary Australian philosopher Frank Jackson presents us with the thought experiment of Mary, الفيلسوف الأسترالي المعاصر فرانك جاكسون يقدم لنا التجربة الفكرية لماري Współczesny filozof australijski, Frank Jackson, przedstawia eksperyment myślowy z Mary, O australiano filósofo contemporâneo Frank Jackson nos apresenta o experimento de pensamento de Mary,

a woman who has spent her entire life in a black and white room, learning everything via a black and white television. امرأة قضت حياتها بالكامل في غرفة بالأبيض والأسود، تتعلم كل شي من خلال تلفاز بالأبيض والأسود kobietą, która całe życie spędziła w biało-czarnym pokoju, ucząc się wszystkiego z biało-czarnej telewizji. uma mulher que passou sua vida inteira em um quarto preto e branco, aprendendo tudo através de uma televisão em preto e branco.

While locked in this room, Mary becomes a neurophysicist specializing in the science of color. بينما هي محبوسة في هذه الغرفة، أصبحت ماري متخصصة في الفيزياء العصبية في علم الألوان Zamknięta w tym pokoju Mary zostaje neurofizykiem specjalizującym się w nauce o kolorach. Enquanto estava trancada em seu quarto, Mary se tora uma neuro-fisicista especialista na ciência das cores.

She learns everything there is to know about light, optics, the physics of color, تعلمت ماري كل ما يجب معرفته حول الضوء، البصريات، وفيزياء اللون Wie ona wszystko, co można wiedzieć o świetle, optyce czy fizyce kolorów Ela aprende tudo que há para se aprender sobre luz, ótica, e as físicas da cor,

and how it affects our sensory organs, but she has never seen it for herself. و كيف لها أن تؤثرعلى أعضاء حواسنا، لكنها لم يسبق لها أن رأت الألوان بنفسها oraz jaki wpływ wywierają one na narządy zmysłów, lecz ona sama nigdy nie widziała żadnego koloru. e como isso afeta nossos órgãos sensoriais, mas ela nunca viu por si mesma.

So here's the question: و هنا السؤال: Pojawia się więc pytanie: Aqui está a questão:

When Mary finally walks out of the room and sees color for the first time, has Mary learned something new? حينما تخرج ماري أخيرًا من الغرفة و ترى لونًا لأول مرة، هل تعلمت ماري شيئاً جديداً؟ czy kiedy Mary w końcu wyjdzie z pokoju i zobaczy kolory pierwszy raz w życiu, dowie się czegoś nowego? Quando Mary finalmente sai do quarto e vê as cores pela primeira vez, Mary aprendeu alguma coisa nova?

Jackson devised this thought experiment as an argument against reductive physicalism. ابتكر جاكسون هذه التجربة الفكرية كحجة ضد الفيزياء الإختزالية Jackson zaprojektował ten eksperyment jak argument przeciwko fizykalizmowi, Jackson concebeu esse experimento de pensamento como um argumento contra o fisicalismo reducionista.

Because, Jackson says, the qualitative experience of seeing a color – say, red – isn't the same as knowing facts about red. لأنه -جاكسون يقول- التجربة النوعية لرؤية لون - مثلاً الأحمر - ليس كمثل معرفة الحقائق بشأن اللون الأحمر bo, jak twierdzi Jackson, jakościowe doświadczenie ujrzenia koloru — dajmy na to czerwonego — to nie to samo, co wiedza o czerwieni. Porque, Jackson diz, a experiência qualitativa de ver uma cor - digamos, vermelho - não é a mesma que saber os fatos sobre o vermelho.

If everything could be explained in terms of the physical, then when Mary finally saw red, إذا كان كل شيء من الممكن تفسيره وفقًا للفيزيائية إذن حينما ترى ماري اللون الأحمر Jeśli wszystko można by wytłumaczyć w granicach fizyki, to Mary nie zdobyłaby żadnej nowej wiedzy, Se tudo pudesse ser explicado em termos físicos, então quando Mary finalmente viu o vermelho,

it wouldn't have contributed to her understanding at all. لن يكون ذلك قد ساهم في فهمها على الإطلاق widząc po raz pierwszy kolor czerwony. isso não teria contribuído em nada para o seu entendimento.

It wouldn't have told her anything that she didn't already know. لن يخبرها ذلِك بشيء لم تعرفه مسبقًا. Nie dowiedziałaby się niczego, czego już by nie wiedziała. Isso não teria dito nada que ela já não soubesse.

Thanks, Thought Bubble! شكرًا فقاعة التفكير! Wielkie dzięki, Thought Bubble! Obrigado, Thought Bubble!

What's missing from a physicalist account, many argue, is what are known as qualia الأمور المفقودة من حديث المادية والجدالات العديدة، هو ما يعرف بـالكيفية المحسوسة Wielu filozofów twierdzi, że tym, czego brakuje w fizykalizmie, to tzw. qualia O que está faltando de uma explicação fisicalista, muitos argumento, é o que é conhecido como qualia

– instances of subjective, first-person experience. حالات شخصية، والتجربة الأولى للشخص — akty subiektywnego, osobistego doświadczenia. - instâncias subjetivas de experiência em primeira pessoa.

Qualia are what it feels like to stub your toe, الكيفية المحسوسة هي ما تشعر به عندما يُجرح إبهامك Qualia są tym, co czujesz, gdy uderzysz się w palec u nogi Qualia é o o que se sente quando se bate seu dedo,

or take the first bite out of a slice of pizza, أو عندما تأخذ القضمة الأولى من شريحة البيتزا lub gdy bierzesz pierwszy kęs pizzy ou quando você morde o primeiro pedaço de pizza,

or to learn that you have been deeply betrayed by a trusted friend. أو عندما تعلم أنه تمت خيانتك بشدة من صديق موثوق به albo gdy dowiadujesz się, że twój zaufany przyjaciel cię zdradził. ou descobrir que você foi traído por um amigo confiável.

It's what Mary is said to gain when she steps out of the room and sees color for the first time. هي ما قيل بأن ماري اكتسبته حينما خرجت من الغرفة ورأت لوناً لأول مرة Qualia są tym, co Mary rzekomo zyskuje, gdy wychodzi z pokoju i widzi kolory po raz pierwszy. É o que Mary supostamente ganha quando ela sai do quarto e vê a cor pela primeira vez.

Physicalists respond to thought experiments like Jackson's by arguing that they beg the question. رد أتباع المذهب الفيزيائي على التجارب الفكرية مثل تجربة جاكسون بحجة أنهم يستجدون السؤال Fizykaliści odparowują, że eksperymenty myślowe jak ten Jacksona to petitio principii. Fisicalistas respondem para experimentos de pensamento como os de Jackson argumentando que eles usam a petição de princípio.

Begging the question, you'll recall, is a philosophical fallacy in which the premises (استجداء السؤال) ستتذكر هذا، هي مغالطة فلسفية تكون فيها المقدمة Petitio principii, jak może sobie przypominasz, to błąd logiczny, który polega na Petição de princípio, você irá lembrar, é uma falácia filosófica em que as premissas

assume the conclusion they're supposed to be proving. تفترض الإستنتاج الذي من المفترض أن يتم إثباته założeniu prawdziwości wniosku, który argumentacja ma dopiero udowodnić. tomam como verdadeira a conclusão que eles supostamente deveriam estar provando.

Jackson's thought experiment assumes that Mary learns something new when she steps out of the room. تجربة جاكسون الفكرية افترضت بأن ماري تعلمت شيئاً جديداً حينما غادرت الغرفة Eksperyment myślowy Jacksona zakłada z góry, że Mary zyskuje coś nowego, gdy wychodzi z pokoju. O experimento de pensamento de Jackson pressupõe que Mary aprende algo quando ela sai do quarto.

But, if physicalism is true, and if she really knows everything physical about color, لكن، إذا كان أتباع المذهب الفيزيائي على حق وأنها حقًا تعرف كل شيء مادي حول اللون Jeśli jednak fizykaliści mają rację i jeśli Mary wie naprawdę wszystko, co fizyczne w danym kolorze, Mas, se o fisicalismo é verdadeiro, e ela realmente sabe tudo que é físico sobre cores,

then of course seeing it for herself isn't going to add to her understanding of it in any way. إذن و بالتأكيد رؤيتها للون بنفسها لن يضيف لفهمها له شيئا على أي حال oczywiście zobaczenie go na własne oczy nie powie jej o nim nic nowego. então obviamente ver por si mesma não vai acrescentar nada no entendimento dela de qualquer modo.

Now, physicalists argue that their case is making progress, الآن - جادل أتباع المذهب الفيزيائي - بأن مسألتهم لازالت تحرز تقدمًا Fizykaliści twierdzą, że ich pogląd wciąż się rozwija, Agora, fisicalistas argumentam que sua hipótese está fazendo progresso,

as we learn more and more about the physical processes of the mind. كما أننا نتعلم الكثير والكثير عن العمليات المادية للعقل jako że odkrywamy coraz więcej i więcej na temat ludzkiego umysłu. enquanto vamos aprendendo mais e mais sobre os processos físicos da mente.

Well that's not really satisfying, because we want an answer, not a promissory note. حسنا ذلك ليس مرضٍ حقًا، لأننا نريد الإجابة وليس تعهد Nie jest to zbyt satysfakcjonujące, ponieważ my chcemy odpowiedzi, a nie obietnic. Bem, isso não é realmente satisfatório, porque nós queremos uma resposta, não uma nota promissória.

But, to be fair, physicalists have only been at work for a few decades, لكن من الإنصاف القول بأن أتباع المذهب الفيزيائي قد بدأوا بالعمل منذ عقود قليلة Należy jednak zauważyć, że fizykaliści pracują dopiero od paru dekad, Mas, para ser justo, fisicalistas estão trabalhando há apenas algumas décadas,

while dualists have been bashing their heads against the mind-body problem for centuries. بينما أتباع الثنائية قد كانوا يضربون رؤوسهم ضد إشكالية العقل-الجسد منذ قرون podczas gdy dualiści zmagali się z dylematem psychofizycznym od stuleci. enquanto dualistas estão batendo suas cabeças contra o problema mente-corpo por séculos.

But not everybody falls cleanly into either the physicalist or the dualist camp. لكن لم ينضم الجيع لمخيم أتباع المذهب الفيزيائي أو أتباع الثنائية. Nie każdy jednak odnajduje się tylko w jednym lub drugim obozie. Mas nem todo mundo se encaixa no campo fisicalista ou dualista.

The Mary case, and other arguments like it, convince some people that they have to maintain their commitment to dualism, مسألة ماري، والحجج الأخرى مثلها، أقنعت بعض الأشخاص أنه يجب عليهم المحافظة على التزامهم بالثنائية Przypadek Mary i inne podobne mu argumenty przekonują niektórych, że powinni trzymać się dualizmu, O caso de Mary, e outros argumentos como ele, convenceu algumas pessoas que eles devem manter seu compromisso com o dualismo,

even though they can't see a solution to the mind-body problem. بالرغم من أنهم لم يروا حلاً لإشكالية العقل-الجسد mimo że nie potrafią znaleźć rozwiązaniu dylematu psychofizycznego. mesmo que eles não consigam ver uma solução para o problema mente-corpo.

Some of those people adopt a view called epiphenomenalism. بعض أولئك الأشخاص اعتمدوا وجهة نظر تدعى بــظاهرة التصاحب Niektórzy przyjmują pogląd zwany epifenomenalizmem. Algumas dessas pessoas adotam uma visão chamada Epifenomenalismo.

This view says that physical states can give rise to mental states, but mental states can't affect physical states. تقول وجهة النظر هذه أن الحالات المادية من الممكن أن ينجم عنها حالات عقلية، لكن الحالات العقلية لا يمكن أن تؤثر على الحالات المادية Pogląd ten mówi, że stany fizyczne mogą wywoływać stany mentalne, ale stany mentalne nie mogą wpływać na stany fizyczne. Essa visão diz que estados físicos podem gerar estados mentais, mas estados mentais não podem afetar estados físicos.

So by this thinking, your beliefs, desires, and temperaments do exist, بهذا الاعتقاد، معتقداتك، رغباتك ومزاجياتك موجودة Zgodnie z nim twoje myśli, wierzenia, pragnienia czy temperament istnieją, Então através deste pensamento, suas crenças, desejos, e temperamentos existem,

but they have no power over anything physical about you. لكنهم لا يملكون قوة على أي شيء مادي حيالك ale nie mają władzy nad twoją fizycznością, mas eles não tem poder sobre nada físico sobre você.

Which might sound kind of weird and unconvincing. و الذي يبدو أنه نوعاً ما غريب وغير مقنع co może brzmieć nieco dziwnie i nieprzekonująco. O que pode soar um pouco estranho e inconvincente.

But then there's contemporary British philosopher Colin McGinn, who advocates a view called mysterianism. لكن بعد ذلك كان هناك الفيلسوف البريطاني المعاصر كولين ماكغين، الذي أيد وجهة نظر تدعى بـالغموضية Ale jest jeszcze współczesny filozof brytyjski Colin McGinn, który głosi pogląd zwany misterianizmem. Mas então temos o filósofo britânico Colin McGinn, que advoga uma visão chamada Misterianismo.

This says that the question of consciousness is unsolvable by human minds. و هذه تقول بأن مسألة الوعي غير قابلة للحل بالعقول البشرية Mówi on, że problem świadomości jest nie do rozwiązania dla ludzkiego umysłu. Que diz que a questão de consciência é irresolvível para mentes humanas.

It's not that McGinn thinks we're dummies. ليس و كأن ماكغين يعتبرنا أغبياء To nie tak, że McGinn twierdzi, że jesteśmy głupi. Não é o caso que McGinn pense que somos burros.

He thinks humans are natural knowers – just give us a problem and we can figure it out. هو يعتقد بأن البشر إدراكيين بالفطرة - فقط أعطنا مشكلة و سنستطيع إكتشافها On tylko uważa, że ludzie ludzie lubią wszystko wiedzieć — rozwiążemy każdy problem, który napotkamy... Ele pensa que os humanos são sabedores naturais - nos dê um problema e nós o resolveremos.

But not this. لكن ليس هذا ...z wyjątkiem tego. Mas não este.

The reason, he says, is that our brains are compartmentalized. و السبب كما يقول أن عقولنا مقسمة Według niego powodem jest to, że nasz mózg jest podzielony. A razão, ele diz, é que nossos cérebros são compartimentados.

The way we understand our mind is through reflection. و الطريقة التي نفهم بها عقولنا تكون من خلال الانعكاس Nasz umysł możemy poznać wyłączne przez introspekcję, A maneia que nós entendemos nossa mente é através da reflexão.

It's deeply personal and subjective. و هي شخصية جدًا وغير موضوعية która jest bardzo osobista i subiektywna. É profundamente pessoal e subjetiva.

But the way we understand our brains and bodies is objective, and verifiable. لكن الطريقة التي نفهم بها أدمغتنا و أجسادنا تكون موضوعية وقابلة للإثبات Nasz mózg i ciało rozumiemy jednak obiektywnie i możemy tę wiedzę zweryfikować. Mas a maneira que nós entendemos nossos cérebros e corpos é objetiva, e verificável.

And those two modes of understanding just don't mix. وهاتان الحالتان من الفهم لا تنسجمان Te dwa tryby rozumienia po prostu do siebie nie pasują. E esses dois modos de entendimento apenas não se misturam.

No amount of reflection could lead to any claims about neurons firing, لا يوجد جزء من الانعكاس من الممكن أن يؤدي إلى أي ادعاءات حول استجابة الخلايا العصبية Introspekcja nigdy nie doprowadzi nas do wniosków na temat wyładowań w neuronach, Nenhuma quantidade de reflexão pode levar a qualquer alegação sobre o funcionamento de neurônios,

and no amount of empirical research is going to give rise to what it's like to see color through someone else's eyes. و لا جزء من البحوث التجريبية سينجم عنها ما يعنيه أن ترى اللون من خلال عيون شخص آخر a empiryczne badania nigdy nie powiedzą nam, jak to jest zobaczyć kolor oczami innej osoby. e nenhuma quantidade de pesquisa empírica vai conseguir gerar o que é ver cor através dos olhos de outras pessoas.

Our brains just don't have a compartment that can piece together those different modes of evidence. أدمغتنا لا تملك تلك الحجرات التي تستطيع أن تجمع معًا تلك الأساليب المختلفة للدليل Nasz mózg po prostu nie ma części, która mogłaby poskładać te odmienne rodzaje informacji. Nossos cérebros não possuem um compartimento que consiga juntar esses dois modos de evidência.

The mind-body problem hasn't been solved, and physicalism hasn't been proven, because إشكالية العقل-الجسد لم يتم حلها، وأتباع المذهب الفيزيائي لم يثبتوها بسبب Dylemat psychofizyczny nie został rozwiązany, a na fizykalizm wciąż nie ma dostatecznych dowodów, O problema mente-corpo não foi resolvido, e o fisicalismo não foi provado, porque

both of those things require our brains to do something they can't do. أن كل هذه الأمور تتطلب عقولنا لتفعل شيئا لا تستطيعه ponieważ oba te problemy wymagają od naszego mózgu czegoś, czego ten nie potrafi. ambas as coisas requerem nossos cérebros fazerem algo que eles não podem.

So what do you think? إذن ماذا تظن أنت؟ A jak ty myślisz? Então o que você acha?

Is your mind a separate substance, riding around in your body until it dies? هل عقلك مادة منفصلة تتجول في جسدك حتى وفاتك؟ Czy twój umysł to odrębna substancja, która rezyduje w twoim ciele aż do śmierci? Sua mente é uma substância separada, andando em volta do seu corpo até ele morrer?

Can the complicated thing that is you – that thinks and feels and desires and hurts – be هل بإمكان الشيء المعقد الذي هو أنت - تفكر وتشعر وترغب وتتألم - Czy ta skomplikowana istota, którą jesteś — myśląca, czująca, pragnąca, odczuwająca ból — może Pode a coisa complicada que você é - que pensa e sente e deseja e sofre - ser

reduced to a purely physical thing? أن يختزل إلى شيء مادي خالص؟ zostać sprowadzona do czystej fizyczności? reduzido a uma coisa puramente física?

Did Mary learn something new? Is it possible to know? هل تعلمت ماري شيئًا جديدًا؟ هل بالإمكان أن نعرف؟ Czy Mary dowiedziała się czegoś nowego? Czy możemy w ogóle to stwierdzić? Mary aprendeu algo novo? Isso é possível de saber?

Well that is up to your mind to figure out. حسناً هذا عائد إلى عقلك لاكتشافه. Tylko twój umysł może odpowiedzieć na te pytania. Bem isso é tarefa da sua mente descobrir.

Today we talked about theories about where the mind resides. تحدثنا اليوم عن النظريات حول أين يوجد العقل؟ Dzisiaj mówiliśmy o teoriach na temat tego, gdzie znajduje się umysł. Hoje nós falamos sobre teorias sobre onde a mente reside.

We learned about reductive physicalism, substance dualism, and mysterianism. و تعلمنا عن الفيزياء الاختزالية، ثنائية المادة، والغموضية Poznaliśmy fizykalizm, dualizm substancjalny i misterianizm. Nós aprendemos sobre fisicalismo reducionista, dualismo cartesiano, e misterianismo.

And next time, we're going to think about these issues some more, و في المرة القادمة، سنفكر في هذه المسائل أكثر W następnym odcinku zastanowimy się jeszcze nieco nad tymi problemami, E da próxima vez nós vamos pensar sobre esses problemas um pouco mais,

with the help of some of my favorite kinds of potential persons – robots! بمساعدة بعض من أشيائي المفضلة من البشر المحتملين - الآليين! tym razem z pomocą moich ulubionych potencjalnych osób — robotów! com a ajuda de alguns das minhas potenciais pessoas favoritas - robôs!

This episode of Crash Course Philosophy is made possible by Squarespace. هذه الحلقة من كراش كورس الفلسفة كانت ممكنة من خلال سكوير سبيس Ten odcinek Crash Course Filozofia jest możliwy dzięki Squarespace. Esse episódio de Crash Course Filosofia é um oferecimento de Squarespace.

Squarespace is a way to create a website, blog or online store for you and your ideas. سكوير سبيس هي طريقة لإنشاء صفحات الويب، مدونة، أو متجر الكتروني لك و لأفكارك Squarespace to sposób na stworzenie strony internetowej, bloga lub sklepu dla Ciebie i Twoich pomysłów. Squarespace é uma maneira de criar um website, blog ou loja online para você e suas ideias.

Squarespace features a user-friendly interface, custom templates and 247 customer support. تقدم لك سكوير سبيس واجهة سهلة الإستخدام ، قوالب مخصصة و دعم عملاء على مدار الساعة Squarespace posiada przyjazny dla użytkownika interfejs, szablony i bogate wsparcie dla użytkownika. Squarespace possui uma interface amigável, modelos personalizados e suporte ao consumidor 24/7.

Try Squarespace at squarespace.com/crashcourse for a special offer. جرب سكوير سبيس على squarespace.com/crashcourse لعرض مميز Wypróbuj Squarespace na squarespace.com/crashcourse, by zyskać dostęp do oferty specjalnej. Experimente Squarespace no squarespace.com/crashcourse por uma oferta especial.

Squarespace: share your passion with the world. Squarespace :شارك شغفك مع العالم Squarespace: podziel się swoją pasją ze światem. Squarespace: Divida sua paixão com o mundo.

Crash Course Philosophy is produced in association with PBS Digital Studios. انتج كراش كورس الفلسفة بالتعاون مع استوديوهات PBS الرقمية Crash Course Filozofia jest tworzony wraz z PBS Digital Studios. Crash Course FIlosofia é produzida em associação com a PBS Digital Studios.

You can head over to their channel and check out a playlist of the latest episodes from shows like يمكنك زيارة قناتهم و الإطلاع على قائمة التشغيل لأحدث الحلقات من البرامج مثل Możesz odwiedzić ich kanał i zobaczyć playlisty najnowszych odcinków Você pode ir até o canal deles e ver uma lista de seus últimos de episódios de shows como

Shanks FX, PBS Space Time, and BBQ with Franklin. Shanks FX, PBS Space Time, و BBQ with Franklin Shanks FX, PBS Space Time czy BBQ with Franklin. Shanks FX, PBS Space Time, e BBQ com Franklin.

This episode of Crash Course was filmed in the Doctor Cheryl C. Kinney Crash Course Studio صورت هذه الحلقة من كراش كورس في استوديو كراش كورس الدكتور شيرلي سي كيني Ten odcinek Crash Course został sfilmowany w Doctor Cheryl C. Kinney Crash Course Studio Esse episódio de Crash Course foi filmado no Doctor Cheryl C. Kinney Crash Course Studio

with the help of these awesome people and our equally fantastic graphics team is Thought Cafe. بمساعدة الأشخاص الرائعين و أيضا فريق الجرافيك الرائع "Thought Cafe" z pomocą tych fantastycznych ludzi i równie fantastycznych grafików z Thought Cafe. como a ajuda dessas pessoas impressionantes e de nossa igualmente fantástica equipe gráfica que é a Thought Cafe.