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Critical thinking in a Nutshell., 19. LITERATURE: Leo Tolstoy.

The Russian novelist Leo Tolstoy was a believer in the novel not as a source of entertainment, but as a tool for psychological education and reform.

It was, in his eyes, the supreme medium by which we can get to know others, especially those who might from the outside seem unappealling, and thereby expand our humanity and tolerance.

Leo Tolstoy was born in 1828 at Yasnaya Polyana, a huge family estate, a hundred miles south of Moscow.

It was to be his home, on and off, for the rest of his life. His parents died when he was young and he was brought up by relatives.

He flopped at university. One lecturer described him as being “unable and unwilling to learn.” He spent a few years gambling and drinking and chasing gypsy women, before signing on as an artillery officer in the Crimean War.

He got married in his early thirties.

His wife Sophia, who came from a sophisticated, high-cultured background, was only eighteen. They had thirteen children, nine of whom survived infancy. It was a difficult marriage; there were huge arguments about sex and bitterness on both sides.

Leo grew a very long beard, became a fitness fanatic and spent most of his time in his study. What he did there was to write several hugely successful books, among them, “War and Peace”, “Anna Karenina” and “The Death of Ivan Ilych”.

Tolstoy did not believe in the idea of art for art's sake.

He was deeply invested in the belief that good art should make us less moralistic and judgemental and should be a supplement to religion in terms of developing our reserves of kindness and morality. This crusading moralistic side of Tolstoy has often been ignored by modern critics – who don't wish to dirty art with a mission – but it is in fact the most important side of Tolstoy, and none of his efforts can properly be appreciated without keeping it in mind. Tolstoy's first great novel was “War and Peace”, published in 1869, when he was 41.

In it, we meet Natasha Rostov, a delightful, free-spirited, young woman. At the start, she is engaged to Andrey, a kind and sincere man who loves her deeply but is also rather emotionally remote and avoidant.

While Andrey is away travelling in Italy, Natasha meets a handsome cynical waster called Anatole and falls under his spell. He almost manages to seduce her and persuades her to run away with him, though her family manage to stop her at the last minute. Everyone is appalled and furious with Natasha. This sort of madness wrecks her own prospects and deeply shames her family. By the world's standards, Natasha has failed terribly.

If we encountered a news clip about such a person we might rapidly come to the conclusion that she lies beyond the range of normal sympathy. She had so much; she thought only of herself, she got what she deserved. And yet Tolstoy's view is that if we grasp what things are like for Natasha inside her mind, we can't and won't withdraw our sympathy.

She isn't in truth self-indulgent, frivolous or totally lacking in devotion. She's just a sexually inexperienced young woman who feels abandoned by her preoccupied boyfriend. She is someone who has a deeply impulsive and warm nature and is easily carried away by joy and happiness. She is also acutely worried about letting other people down, which is what leads her into trouble with the scheming and manipulative Anatole. Tolstoy keeps us on Natasha's side and by doing so, he is getting us to rehearse a move he believes is fundamental to an ethical life: if we more accurately saw the inner lives of others, they couldn't appear to us in the normal cold and one-dimensional way, and we would treat them with the kindness which they truly need and deserve.

No one should be outside the circle of sympathy and forgiveness. For Tolstoy, a particular task of the novel is to help us to understand the so-called ‘dislikeable' characters.

One of the most initially repellant characters in his fiction is the husband of Anna Karenina, the heroine of his great novel of the same name, the pompous and stiff Karenin. The novel, a tragedy, tells the story of the beautiful, clever, lively and generous-hearted married Anna, whose life falls apart when she falls in love with Vronsky – a splendid young cavalry officer. Anna's husband – Count Alexei Karenin – is a fussy, status conscious, mannered high-ranking government official, who is often callous towards Anna and is unable to answer any of her emotional yearnings.

As Anna's affair with Vronsky develops, her husband's main worry is that it might lead to social gossip which could undermine his public standing. He appears to have no feelings at all about the marriage itself. He comes across as simply cold and brutish. But then Anna gives birth to her lover's child, she is ill, and – in a highly touching scene – Karenin is deeply moved, weeps for the infant, for the mother, and forgives Anna:

‘No, you can't forgive me! [says Anna].

And yet he suddenly felt a blissful spiritual condition that gave him all at once a new happiness he had never known: a glad feeling of love and forgiveness for his enemies filled his heart. He knelt down, and laying his head in the curve of Anna's arm; he sobbed like a little child. Thanks to the judicious Tolstoy, we see entirely unexpected aspects of the man.

His inner life is not at all what we would expect, judging from the outside. But Tolstoy's point is that Karenin is not really an exceptional character. He is just the normal mixture of bad and good. It is highly usual for rather off-putting people to have huge reserves of buried tenderness: to have dimensions to their characters very different from and often much nicer than those that their forbidding appearance suggests. We are invited on a comparable journey in relation to another character in Tolstoy's fiction, the hero of the “The Death of Ivan Illych“ (published in 1886).

At the start of the novel, we meet Ivan, a high court judge at the pinnacle of society who appears selfish, vain and cynical. But one day, while helping hang some curtains, Ivan falls from a ladder and becomes aware of an inner pain which is the first sign of a disease which is soon diagnosed as fatal. He will have just a few months left to live. As his health declines, Ivan spends a lot of time sitting on the sofa at home. His family, aware at just how inconvenient his death will be to their social and financial standing, begin to resent him and his illness.

He's short and ill-tempered back. And yet inside, Ivan is going through a range of epiphanies. He looks back over his life and atones for its shallowness. He becomes newly sensitive to nature – and to the ordinary kindness of his manservant, a humble uneducated man of peasant stock. He grows furious at the stupid way in which everyone avoids paying attention to the one really crucial fact about life: that we all die. He realises that our mortality should be constantly before our minds and should inspire continual kindness and sympathy. As he dies, Tolstoy imagines Ivan finally feeling pity and forgiveness for all those around him. As is typical in his writing, Tolstoy recounts in detail the vast philosophical and psychological dramas going on inside his hero's head.

All that those around him – the doctors and his family – get to see is a sullen man who spends a lot of time with his face to the wall, and yet we can see a visionary, a prophet and a man of outstanding moral courage and generosity. In writing about Ivan, Tolstoy wanted us to see his life as representative of all human potential, if only we could wake up to it before it is too late.

When he was about seventy, Tolstoy pulled together his thinking about being a writer in a long essay, “What is art?”

It is one of his most important books.

In it, Tolstoy proposes that art has a great mission. Through great art, he tells, us ‘Lower feelings – less kind and less needed for the good of humanity – are forced out and replaced by kinder feelings which better serve us individually and collectively. This is the purpose of art. As a supremely skilled and seductive writer, Tolstoy knew that novels need to be entertaining, or we simply won't bother to read them.

But he was also convinced that they have to aspire to be something else as well: key supports for our own stumbling path to maturity and kindness. And they can do this because they are able to get into a place we need but rarely have access to: the inner lives of other people. In “What is art?”, Tolstoy was mostly writing about the works of other authors, but it is really his own achievement that he is, indirectly and modestly, summing up.

Great writers shouldn't ever be just helping their readers pass the time. Their writing must be a form of therapy, an attempt to educate us towards emotional health and ethical good sense. As they aged, the tensions between Leo and and his wife Sophia grew.

He complained that they had “totally opposite ideas of the meaning of existence”. Yet he insisted that even as Sophia “grew more and more irritable, despotic and uncontrollable” he continued to love her, though he admitted that he had given up trying to express his feelings. “There is no greater tragedy than the tragedy of the marital bed”, he wrote. Finally, when he was past eighty, Tolstoy couldn't take it any more, and deserted his wife and family. He ran away in the middle of a freezing November night, caught pneumonia and died at the nearby railway station, where he was waiting for a train. Tolstoy's funeral was a major public occasion.

Thousands showed up from across Russia and the world. This was fitting, for his central proposal has enormous social implications.

Tolstoy realised that our picture of what other people are like is a great driving force of relationships, economics and politics. He held up the tantalising idea that art could be the major vehicle for getting more accurate – and often much kinder – ideas about what is going on in the minds (and lives) of others people. His body was taken back to his house and buried in the garden, under some trees where he liked to play as a child.

The Russian novelist Leo Tolstoy was a believer in the novel not as a source of entertainment, but as a tool for psychological education and reform. وكان الروائي الروسي ليو تولستوي مؤمنًا بالرواية ليس كمصدر للترفيه، بل كأداة للتربية النفسية والإصلاح. Der russische Schriftsteller Leo Tolstoi glaubte an den Roman nicht als Quelle der Unterhaltung, sondern als Werkzeug für psychologische Bildung und Reform. El novelista ruso León Tolstoi creía en la novela no como una fuente de entretenimiento, sino como una herramienta para la educación y la reforma psicológica. O romancista russo Leo Tolstoy acreditava no romance não como uma fonte de entretenimento, mas como uma ferramenta para educação e reforma psicológica. Русский писатель Лев Толстой считал роман не источником развлечения, а средством психологического воспитания и реформирования.

It was, in his eyes, the supreme medium by which we can get to know others, especially those who might from the outside seem unappealling, and thereby expand our humanity and tolerance. Es war in seinen Augen das beste Medium, mit dem wir andere kennenlernen können, insbesondere diejenigen, die von außen unsympathisch erscheinen mögen, und dadurch unsere Menschlichkeit und Toleranz erweitern können. Era, a sus ojos, el medio supremo por el cual podemos llegar a conocer a los demás, especialmente a aquellos que pueden parecer poco atractivos desde el exterior, y por lo tanto expandir nuestra humanidad y tolerancia. Era, a seus olhos, o meio supremo pelo qual podemos conhecer os outros, especialmente aqueles que de fora podem parecer desagradáveis e, assim, expandir nossa humanidade e tolerância. По его мнению, это высшее средство, с помощью которого мы можем узнать других людей, особенно тех, кто со стороны может показаться непривлекательным, и тем самым расширить нашу человечность и терпимость.

Leo Tolstoy was born in 1828 at Yasnaya Polyana, a huge family estate, a hundred miles south of Moscow. Leo Tolstoi wurde 1828 in Yasnaya Polyana geboren, einem riesigen Familienbesitz, hundert Meilen südlich von Moskau. León Tolstoi nació en 1828 en Yasnaya Polyana, una gran finca familiar, a cien millas al sur de Moscú. Leo Tolstoi nasceu em 1828 em Yasnaya Polyana, uma enorme propriedade familiar, 160 quilômetros ao sul de Moscou.

It was to be his home, on and off, for the rest of his life. Es sollte für den Rest seines Lebens immer wieder sein Zuhause sein. Iba a ser su hogar, de vez en cuando, por el resto de su vida. Era para ser sua casa, intermitentemente, pelo resto de sua vida. His parents died when he was young and he was brought up by relatives. Seine Eltern starben, als er noch jung war, und er wuchs bei Verwandten auf. Sus padres murieron cuando él era joven y fue criado por parientes. Ses parents sont morts quand il était jeune et il a été élevé par des parents. Seus pais morreram quando ele era jovem e ele foi criado por parentes.

He flopped at university. لقد تخبط في الجامعة. An der Uni ist er durchgefallen. Fracasó en la universidad. Ele fracassou na universidade. One lecturer described him as being “unable and unwilling to learn.” Ein Dozent beschrieb ihn als „nicht lernfähig und lernwillig“. Un disertante lo describió como “incapaz y poco dispuesto a aprender”. Um professor o descreveu como sendo “incapaz e sem vontade de aprender”. He spent a few years gambling and drinking and chasing gypsy women, before signing on as an artillery officer in the Crimean War. Er verbrachte ein paar Jahre damit, zu spielen und zu trinken und Zigeunerfrauen zu jagen, bevor er sich als Artillerieoffizier im Krimkrieg anmeldete. Pasó algunos años apostando, bebiendo y persiguiendo mujeres gitanas, antes de firmar como oficial de artillería en la Guerra de Crimea. Ele passou alguns anos jogando, bebendo e perseguindo mulheres ciganas, antes de se tornar oficial de artilharia na Guerra da Criméia.

He got married in his early thirties. Er heiratete Anfang dreißig. Se casó cuando tenía poco más de treinta años. Ele se casou com trinta e poucos anos.

His wife Sophia, who came from a sophisticated, high-cultured background, was only eighteen. Seine Frau Sophia, die aus gehobenen, hochkultivierten Verhältnissen stammte, war erst achtzehn. Su esposa, Sophia, que provenía de un entorno sofisticado y de alta cultura, solo tenía dieciocho años. Sua esposa Sophia, que vinha de uma família sofisticada e culta, tinha apenas dezoito anos. They had thirteen children, nine of whom survived infancy. Sie hatten dreizehn Kinder, von denen neun das Säuglingsalter überlebten. Tuvieron trece hijos, nueve de los cuales sobrevivieron a la infancia. Ils ont eu treize enfants, dont neuf ont survécu à l'enfance. Eles tiveram treze filhos, nove dos quais sobreviveram à infância. У них было тринадцать детей, девять из которых выжили в младенчестве. It was a difficult marriage; there were huge arguments about sex and bitterness on both sides. Es war eine schwierige Ehe; Auf beiden Seiten gab es heftige Auseinandersetzungen über Sex und Bitterkeit. Fue un matrimonio difícil; hubo grandes discusiones sobre el sexo y la amargura en ambos lados. Foi um casamento difícil; houve grandes discussões sobre sexo e amargura de ambos os lados. Это был трудный брак, в нем было много споров о сексе и горечи с обеих сторон.

Leo grew a very long beard, became a fitness fanatic and spent most of his time in his study. أطلق ليو لحية طويلة جدًا، وأصبح مهووسًا باللياقة البدنية وقضى معظم وقته في دراسته. Leo ließ sich einen sehr langen Bart wachsen, wurde ein Fitnessfanatiker und verbrachte die meiste Zeit in seinem Arbeitszimmer. Leo se dejó crecer una barba muy larga, se convirtió en un fanático del fitness y pasaba la mayor parte de su tiempo en su estudio. Leo a développé une très longue barbe, est devenu un fanatique du fitness et a passé le plus clair de son temps dans son bureau. Leo deixou crescer uma barba muito longa, tornou-se um fanático por fitness e passou a maior parte do tempo em seu escritório. What he did there was to write several hugely successful books, among them, “War and Peace”, “Anna Karenina” and “The Death of Ivan Ilych”. Dort schrieb er mehrere äußerst erfolgreiche Bücher, darunter „Krieg und Frieden“, „Anna Karenina“ und „Der Tod des Iwan Iljitsch“. Lo que hizo allí fue escribir varios libros de enorme éxito, entre ellos, “La guerra y la paz”, “Anna Karenina” y “La muerte de Ivan Ilich”. O que ele fez por lá foi escrever vários livros de enorme sucesso, entre eles, “Guerra e Paz”, “Anna Karenina” e “A Morte de Ivan Ilych”.

Tolstoy did not believe in the idea of art for art’s sake. Tolstoi glaubte nicht an die Idee der Kunst um der Kunst willen. Tolstoi no creía en la idea del arte por el arte. Tolstoi não acreditava na ideia de arte pela arte.

He was deeply invested in the belief that good art should make us less moralistic and judgemental and should be a supplement to religion in terms of developing our reserves of kindness and morality. Er war tief in den Glauben verstrickt, dass gute Kunst uns weniger moralisch und wertend machen und eine Ergänzung zur Religion sein sollte, um unsere Reserven an Freundlichkeit und Moral zu entwickeln. Estaba profundamente comprometido con la creencia de que el buen arte debería hacernos menos moralistas y críticos y debería ser un complemento de la religión en términos de desarrollar nuestras reservas de bondad y moralidad. Ele estava profundamente investido na crença de que a boa arte deveria nos tornar menos moralistas e críticos e deveria ser um complemento à religião em termos de desenvolvimento de nossas reservas de bondade e moralidade. Он был глубоко убежден, что хорошее искусство должно сделать нас менее моралистичными и осуждающими и стать дополнением к религии в плане развития наших резервов доброты и нравственности. This crusading moralistic side of Tolstoy has often been ignored by modern critics – who don’t wish to dirty art with a mission – but it is in fact the most important side of Tolstoy, and none of his efforts can properly be appreciated without keeping it in mind. Diese moralistische Kreuzzugsseite von Tolstoi wurde oft von modernen Kritikern ignoriert – die Kunst nicht mit einer Mission beschmutzen wollen – aber es ist tatsächlich die wichtigste Seite von Tolstoi, und keine seiner Bemühungen kann richtig gewürdigt werden, ohne sie zu bewahren im Kopf. Este lado moralista de cruzada de Tolstoy a menudo ha sido ignorado por los críticos modernos, que no desean ensuciar el arte con una misión, pero de hecho es el lado más importante de Tolstoy, y ninguno de sus esfuerzos puede apreciarse adecuadamente sin mantenerlo. en mente. Ce critique moraliste en croisade de Tolstoï a souvent été ignoré des critiques modernes - qui ne souhaitent pas salir l'art avec une mission - mais il s'agit en fait du côté le plus important de Tolstoï, et aucun de ses efforts ne peut être correctement apprécié sans le conserver. à l'esprit. Esta cruzada moralista de Tolstói tem sido muitas vezes ignorado pelos críticos modernos – que não desejam sujar a arte com uma missão – mas é de fato o lado mais importante de Tolstói, e nenhum de seus esforços pode ser devidamente apreciado sem mantê-lo. em mente. Tolstoy’s first great novel was “War and Peace”, published in 1869, when he was 41. La primera gran novela de Tolstoi fue “La guerra y la paz”, publicada en 1869, cuando tenía 41 años. O primeiro grande romance de Tolstói foi “Guerra e Paz”, publicado em 1869, quando ele tinha 41 anos.

In it, we meet Natasha Rostov, a delightful, free-spirited, young woman. En él, conocemos a Natasha Rostov, una joven encantadora y de espíritu libre. Nele, conhecemos Natasha Rostov, uma jovem encantadora e de espírito livre. At the start, she is engaged to Andrey, a kind and sincere man who loves her deeply but is also rather emotionally remote and avoidant. Al principio, está comprometida con Andrey, un hombre amable y sincero que la ama profundamente pero que también es emocionalmente distante y evasivo. Au début, elle est fiancée à Andrey, un homme gentil et sincère qui l’aime profondément, mais qui est aussi assez distant émotionnellement et évitant. No início, ela está noiva de Andrey, um homem gentil e sincero que a ama profundamente, mas também é emocionalmente distante e evitativo.

While Andrey is away travelling in Italy, Natasha meets a handsome cynical waster called Anatole and falls under his spell. Mientras Andrey está de viaje en Italia, Natasha conoce a un apuesto y cínico derrochador llamado Anatole y cae bajo su hechizo. Alors que Andrey est en voyage en Italie, Natasha rencontre un beau gaspilleur cynique appelé Anatole et tombe sous son charme. Enquanto Andrey está viajando pela Itália, Natasha conhece um belo e cínico esbanjador chamado Anatole e cai em seu feitiço. He almost manages to seduce her and persuades her to run away with him, though her family manage to stop her at the last minute. Casi logra seducirla y la convence de que se escape con él, aunque su familia logra detenerla en el último minuto. Ele quase consegue seduzi-la e a convence a fugir com ele, embora sua família consiga detê-la no último minuto. Everyone is appalled and furious with Natasha. Todos están horrorizados y furiosos con Natasha. Todos estão chocados e furiosos com Natasha. This sort of madness wrecks her own prospects and deeply shames her family. Este tipo de locura arruina sus propias perspectivas y avergüenza profundamente a su familia. Cette sorte de folie détruit ses propres perspectives et fait honte à sa famille. Esse tipo de loucura destrói suas próprias perspectivas e envergonha profundamente sua família. Подобное безумие разрушает ее собственные перспективы и позорит ее семью. By the world’s standards, Natasha has failed terribly. Según los estándares del mundo, Natasha ha fracasado terriblemente. Pelos padrões do mundo, Natasha falhou terrivelmente. По мировым меркам Наташа потерпела страшную неудачу.

If we encountered a news clip about such a person we might rapidly come to the conclusion that she lies beyond the range of normal sympathy. Si nos encontramos con un clip de noticias sobre una persona así, podríamos llegar rápidamente a la conclusión de que se encuentra más allá del rango de simpatía normal. Se deparássemos com um noticiário sobre tal pessoa, poderíamos rapidamente chegar à conclusão de que ela está além do alcance da simpatia normal. Если бы нам попался новостной ролик о таком человеке, мы бы быстро пришли к выводу, что он находится за гранью нормального сочувствия. She had so much; she thought only of herself, she got what she deserved. Ella tenía tanto; pensó solo en sí misma, obtuvo su merecido. Ela tinha tanto; ela pensou apenas em si mesma, ela teve o que merecia. У нее было так много, она думала только о себе и получила по заслугам. And yet Tolstoy’s view is that if we grasp what things are like for Natasha inside her mind, we can’t and won’t withdraw our sympathy. Y, sin embargo, la opinión de Tolstoy es que si captamos cómo son las cosas para Natasha dentro de su mente, no podemos retirar nuestra simpatía y no lo haremos. Et pourtant, le point de vue de Tolstoï est que si nous comprenons ce qui se passe pour Natasha dans son esprit, nous ne pouvons pas et ne retirerons pas notre sympathie. E, no entanto, a visão de Tolstoi é que, se entendermos como são as coisas para Natasha dentro de sua mente, não podemos e não retiraremos nossa simpatia. И все же Толстой считает, что если мы поймем, каково Наташе в ее сознании, мы не сможем и не захотим отказаться от сочувствия.

She isn’t in truth self-indulgent, frivolous or totally lacking in devotion. Ella no es en verdad autoindulgente, frívola o totalmente carente de devoción. Ela não é, na verdade, auto-indulgente, frívola ou totalmente carente de devoção. На самом деле она не самовлюбленная, не легкомысленная и не лишенная преданности. She’s just a sexually inexperienced young woman who feels abandoned by her preoccupied boyfriend. Ella es solo una joven sexualmente inexperta que se siente abandonada por su preocupado novio. Ela é apenas uma jovem sexualmente inexperiente que se sente abandonada pelo namorado preocupado. Она просто сексуально неопытная девушка, которая чувствует себя брошенной своим озабоченным парнем. She is someone who has a deeply impulsive and warm nature and is easily carried away by joy and happiness. Es alguien que tiene un carácter profundamente impulsivo y cálido y se deja llevar fácilmente por la alegría y la felicidad. Ela é alguém que tem uma natureza profundamente impulsiva e calorosa e é facilmente levada pela alegria e pela felicidade. У нее очень импульсивная и теплая натура, ее легко увлечь радостью и счастьем. She is also acutely worried about letting other people down, which is what leads her into trouble with the scheming and manipulative Anatole. También está muy preocupada por decepcionar a otras personas, que es lo que la lleva a tener problemas con el intrigante y manipulador Anatole. Ela também está extremamente preocupada em decepcionar outras pessoas, o que a leva a ter problemas com o intrigante e manipulador Anatole. Она также остро переживает, что может подвести других людей, что и приводит ее к неприятностям с интриганом и манипулятором Анатолем. Tolstoy keeps us on Natasha’s side and by doing so, he is getting us to rehearse a move he believes is fundamental to an ethical life: if we more accurately saw the inner lives of others, they couldn’t appear to us in the normal cold and one-dimensional way, and we would treat them with the kindness which they truly need and deserve. Tolstoy nos mantiene del lado de Natasha y, al hacerlo, nos está haciendo ensayar un movimiento que él cree que es fundamental para una vida ética: si viéramos con más precisión la vida interior de los demás, no podrían aparecer ante nosotros en el frío normal. y era unidimensional, y los trataríamos con la amabilidad que realmente necesitan y merecen. Tolstoi nos mantém do lado de Natasha e, ao fazer isso, está nos levando a ensaiar um movimento que acredita ser fundamental para uma vida ética: se víssemos com mais precisão a vida interior dos outros, eles não poderiam aparecer para nós no frio normal e unidimensional modo, e nós os trataríamos com a gentileza que eles realmente precisam e merecem. Толстой поддерживает нас на стороне Наташи и тем самым заставляет повторить действие, которое, по его мнению, является основополагающим для этической жизни: если бы мы более точно видели внутреннюю жизнь других людей, они не могли бы казаться нам обычными холодными и одномерными, и мы бы относились к ним с добротой, в которой они действительно нуждаются и которой заслуживают.

No one should be outside the circle of sympathy and forgiveness. Nadie debe quedar fuera del círculo de simpatía y perdón. Ninguém deve ficar fora do círculo de simpatia e perdão. Никто не должен быть вне круга сочувствия и прощения. For Tolstoy, a particular task of the novel is to help us to understand the so-called ‘dislikeable' characters. Para Tolstoi, una tarea particular de la novela es ayudarnos a comprender los personajes llamados "desagradables". Para Tolstói, uma tarefa específica do romance é nos ajudar a entender os chamados personagens "desagradáveis". Для Толстого особая задача романа - помочь нам понять так называемых "неприятных" персонажей.

One of the most initially repellant characters in his fiction is the husband of Anna Karenina, the heroine of his great novel of the same name, the pompous and stiff Karenin. Uno de los personajes inicialmente más repelentes de su ficción es el marido de Anna Karenina, la heroína de su gran novela homónima, la pomposa y rígida Karenin. Um dos personagens inicialmente mais repulsivos de sua ficção é o marido de Anna Karenina, a heroína de seu grande romance de mesmo nome, o pomposo e rígido Karenin. The novel, a tragedy, tells the story of the beautiful, clever, lively and generous-hearted married Anna, whose life falls apart when she falls in love with Vronsky – a splendid young cavalry officer. La novela, una tragedia, cuenta la historia de la bella, inteligente, vivaz y muy generosa de corazón casada Anna, cuya vida se desmorona cuando se enamora de Vronsky, un joven y espléndido oficial de caballería. O romance, uma tragédia, conta a história da bela, inteligente, vivaz e generosa esposa Anna, cuja vida desmorona quando ela se apaixona por Vronsky – um esplêndido jovem oficial da cavalaria. Anna’s husband – Count Alexei Karenin – is a fussy, status conscious, mannered high-ranking government official, who is often callous towards Anna and is unable to answer any of her emotional yearnings. El esposo de Anna, el conde Alexei Karenin, es un funcionario gubernamental de alto rango quisquilloso, consciente del estatus y educado, que a menudo es insensible con Anna y es incapaz de responder a ninguno de sus anhelos emocionales. Le mari d'Anna, le comte Alexei Karenin, est un haut fonctionnaire haut gradé du gouvernement, très dur envers lui-même et souvent impitoyable envers Anna et incapable de répondre à ses aspirations émotionnelles. O marido de Anna - o conde Alexei Karenin - é um funcionário do governo de alto escalão exigente, preocupado com o status e educado, que costuma ser insensível com Anna e incapaz de atender a qualquer um de seus anseios emocionais. Муж Анны - граф Алексей Каренин - суетливый, статусный, манерный высокопоставленный чиновник, часто черствый по отношению к Анне и не способный ответить ни на одну ее душевную тоску.

As Anna’s affair with Vronsky develops, her husband’s main worry is that it might lead to social gossip which could undermine his public standing. A medida que se desarrolla la aventura de Anna con Vronsky, la principal preocupación de su esposo es que podría dar lugar a chismes sociales que podrían socavar su reputación pública. À medida que o caso de Anna com Vronsky se desenvolve, a principal preocupação de seu marido é que isso possa levar a fofocas sociais que possam prejudicar sua posição pública. По мере развития романа Анны с Вронским ее муж беспокоится о том, что это может привести к сплетням в обществе, которые подорвут его общественное положение. He appears to have no feelings at all about the marriage itself. Parece no tener ningún sentimiento sobre el matrimonio en sí. Ele parece não ter nenhum sentimento sobre o casamento em si. Похоже, он совсем не испытывает чувств по поводу самого брака. He comes across as simply cold and brutish. Se muestra simplemente frío y brutal. Ele parece simplesmente frio e brutal. Он выглядит просто холодным и грубым. But then Anna gives birth to her lover’s child, she is ill, and – in a highly touching scene – Karenin is deeply moved, weeps for the infant, for the mother, and forgives Anna: Pero luego Anna da a luz al hijo de su amante, ella está enferma y, en una escena muy conmovedora, Karenin se conmueve profundamente, llora por el bebé, por la madre, y perdona a Anna: Mas então Anna dá à luz o filho de seu amante, ela fica doente e - em uma cena altamente tocante - Karenin fica profundamente comovida, chora pelo bebê, pela mãe e perdoa Anna: Но вот Анна рожает ребенка от своего любовника, заболевает, и - в трогательной сцене - Каренин глубоко растроган, плачет о младенце, о матери и прощает Анну:

‘No, you can’t forgive me! [says Anna]. ¡No, no puedes perdonarme! 'Não, você não pode me perdoar! [diz Ana].

And yet he suddenly felt a blissful spiritual condition that gave him all at once a new happiness he had never known: a glad feeling of love and forgiveness for his enemies filled his heart. Y, sin embargo, de repente sintió una bienaventurada condición espiritual que le dio de repente una nueva felicidad que nunca había conocido: un sentimiento gozoso de amor y perdón por sus enemigos llenó su corazón. E, no entanto, ele de repente sentiu uma condição espiritual feliz que lhe deu de repente uma nova felicidade que ele nunca havia conhecido: um sentimento alegre de amor e perdão por seus inimigos encheu seu coração. He knelt down, and laying his head in the curve of Anna’s arm; he sobbed like a little child. Se arrodilló y apoyó la cabeza en la curva del brazo de Anna; sollozaba como un niño pequeño. Ele se ajoelhou e pousou a cabeça na curva do braço de Anna; ele soluçou como uma criança. Thanks to the judicious Tolstoy, we see entirely unexpected aspects of the man. Gracias al juicioso Tolstoi, vemos aspectos completamente inesperados del hombre. Graças ao judicioso Tolstói, vemos aspectos totalmente inesperados do homem.

His inner life is not at all what we would expect, judging from the outside. Su vida interior no es en absoluto lo que esperaríamos, a juzgar por el exterior. Sua vida interior não é nada do que esperávamos, a julgar por fora. But Tolstoy’s point is that Karenin is not really an exceptional character. Pero el punto de Tolstoy es que Karenin no es realmente un personaje excepcional en este sentido. Mas o ponto de Tolstoi é que Karenin não é realmente um personagem excepcional. He is just the normal mixture of bad and good. Él es solo la mezcla normal de malo y muy bueno. Ele é apenas a mistura normal de bom e mau. It is highly usual for rather off-putting people to have huge reserves of buried tenderness: to have dimensions to their characters very different from  and often much nicer than those that their forbidding appearance suggests. Es muy común que las personas bastante desagradables tengan enormes reservas de ternura oculta: que sus personajes tengan dimensiones muy diferentes y, a menudo, mucho más agradables que las que sugiere su apariencia imponente. É altamente comum que pessoas um tanto desanimadoras tenham enormes reservas de ternura enterrada: tenham dimensões em seus personagens muito diferentes e muitas vezes muito mais agradáveis do que aquelas que sua aparência ameaçadora sugere. We are invited on a comparable journey in relation to another character in Tolstoy’s fiction, the hero of the “The Death of Ivan Illych“ (published in 1886). Estamos invitados a un viaje comparable en relación con otro personaje de la ficción de Tolstoi, el héroe de “La muerte de Ivan Illych” (publicado en 1886). Somos convidados a uma viagem comparável em relação a outro personagem da ficção de Tolstói, o herói de “A Morte de Ivan Illych” (publicado em 1886).

At the start of the novel, we meet Ivan, a high court judge at the pinnacle of society who appears selfish, vain and cynical. Al comienzo de la novela, conocemos a Iván, un juez de la corte superior en el pináculo de la sociedad que parece egoísta, vanidoso y cínico. Au début du roman, nous rencontrons Ivan, un juge de la haute cour au sommet de la société, qui semble égoïste, vaniteux et cynique. No início do romance, conhecemos Ivan, um juiz do alto escalão da sociedade que parece egoísta, vaidoso e cínico. But one day, while helping hang some curtains, Ivan falls from a ladder and becomes aware of an inner pain which is the first sign of a disease which is soon diagnosed as fatal. Pero un día, mientras ayuda a colgar unas cortinas, Iván se cae de una escalera y se da cuenta de un dolor interior que es el primer síntoma de una enfermedad que pronto se diagnostica como mortal. Mais un jour, alors qu’il aide à suspendre des rideaux, Ivan tombe d’une échelle et prend conscience d’une douleur intérieure qui est le premier signe d’une maladie qui est rapidement diagnostiquée comme étant fatale. Mas um dia, enquanto ajudava a pendurar algumas cortinas, Ivan cai de uma escada e percebe uma dor interior que é o primeiro sinal de uma doença que logo é diagnosticada como fatal. He will have just a few months left to live. Le quedarán pocos meses de vida. Ele terá apenas alguns meses de vida. As his health declines, Ivan spends a lot of time sitting on the sofa at home. A medida que su salud empeora, Iván pasa mucho tiempo sentado en el sofá de su casa. À medida que sua saúde piora, Ivan passa muito tempo sentado no sofá de casa. His family, aware at just how inconvenient his death will be to their social and financial standing, begin to resent him and his illness. Su familia, consciente de lo inconveniente que su muerte será para su posición social y financiera, comienza a resentirse con él y su enfermedad. Sua família, ciente de quão inconveniente sua morte será para sua situação social e financeira, começa a se ressentir dele e de sua doença.

He’s short and ill-tempered back. Es bajito y malhumorado de espalda. Il est petit et de mauvaise humeur. Ele é baixinho e mal-humorado. And yet inside, Ivan is going through a range of epiphanies. Y, sin embargo, por dentro, Ivan está pasando por una serie de epifanías. Et pourtant, à l'intérieur, Ivan traverse une série d'épiphanies. E ainda por dentro, Ivan está passando por uma série de epifanias. He looks back over his life and atones for its shallowness. Él mira hacia atrás sobre su vida y expía su superficialidad. Il jette un coup d'œil sur sa vie et expie le manque de profondeur de celle-ci. Ele olha para trás em sua vida e expia sua superficialidade. He becomes newly sensitive to nature – and to the ordinary kindness of his manservant, a humble uneducated man of peasant stock. Se vuelve nuevamente sensible a la naturaleza, y a la amabilidad ordinaria de su sirviente, un hombre humilde sin educación de origen campesino. Il devient de plus en plus sensible à la nature - et à la gentillesse ordinaire de son serviteur, un humble homme de culture paysanne sans éducation. Ele se torna novamente sensível à natureza - e à bondade comum de seu servo, um homem humilde e sem educação de origem camponesa. He grows furious at the stupid way in which everyone avoids paying attention to the one really crucial fact about life: that we all die. Se pone furioso por la forma estúpida en que todo el mundo evita prestar atención al hecho realmente crucial de la vida: que todos morimos. Ele fica furioso com a maneira estúpida como todos evitam prestar atenção ao único fato realmente crucial sobre a vida: que todos nós morremos. He realises that our mortality should be constantly before our minds and should inspire continual kindness and sympathy. Se da cuenta de que nuestra mortalidad debe estar constantemente en nuestra mente y debe inspirar bondad y simpatía continuas. Ele percebe que nossa mortalidade deve estar constantemente diante de nossas mentes e deve inspirar bondade e simpatia contínuas. As he dies, Tolstoy imagines Ivan finally feeling pity and forgiveness for all those around him. Mientras muere, Tolstoy lo imagina finalmente sintiendo lástima y perdón por todos los que lo rodean. Ao morrer, Tolstoi imagina Ivan finalmente sentindo pena e perdão por todos ao seu redor. As is typical in his writing, Tolstoy recounts in detail the vast philosophical and psychological dramas going on inside his hero’s head. Como es típico en sus escritos, Tolstoi relata en detalle los vastos dramas filosóficos y psicológicos que ocurren dentro de la cabeza de su héroe. Como é típico em sua escrita, Tolstoi relata em detalhes os vastos dramas filosóficos e psicológicos que se passam na cabeça de seu herói.

All that those around him – the doctors and his family – get to see is a sullen man who spends a lot of time with his face to the wall, and yet we can see a visionary, a prophet and a man of outstanding moral courage and generosity. Lo único que ven quienes lo rodean, los médicos y su familia, es a un hombre hosco que pasa mucho tiempo con la cara contra la pared, que siempre dice 'váyase, déjeme en paz' y que a veces aúlla con miseria, pero podemos ver a un visionario, un profeta y un hombre de gran valentía moral y generosidad. Tudo o que os que o cercam – os médicos e sua família – conseguem ver é um homem taciturno que passa muito tempo com a cara na parede, mas podemos ver um visionário, um profeta e um homem de notável coragem moral e generosidade. In writing about Ivan, Tolstoy wanted us to see his life as representative of all human potential, if only we could wake up to it before it is too late. Al escribir sobre Iván, Tolstoi quería que viéramos su vida como representante de todo el potencial humano, si tan solo pudiéramos despertar a él antes de que sea demasiado tarde. Ao escrever sobre Ivan, Tolstoi queria que víssemos sua vida como representativa de todo o potencial humano, se ao menos pudéssemos acordar para isso antes que seja tarde demais.

When he was about seventy, Tolstoy pulled together his thinking about being a writer in a long essay, “What is art?” Quando tinha cerca de setenta anos, Tolstoi reuniu seu pensamento sobre ser um escritor em um longo ensaio, “O que é arte?”

It is one of his most important books.

In it, Tolstoy proposes that art has a great mission. Through great art, he tells, us ‘Lower feelings – less kind and less needed for the good of humanity – are forced out and replaced by kinder feelings which better serve us individually and collectively. Através da grande arte, ele nos diz 'Sentimentos inferiores – menos gentis e menos necessários para o bem da humanidade – são expulsos e substituídos por sentimentos mais gentis que nos servem melhor individual e coletivamente. This is the purpose of art. Este é o objetivo do art. As a supremely skilled and seductive writer, Tolstoy knew that novels need to be entertaining, or we simply won’t bother to read them. Como um escritor extremamente habilidoso e sedutor, Tolstoi sabia que os romances precisam ser divertidos, ou simplesmente não nos daremos ao trabalho de lê-los.

But he was also convinced that they have to aspire to be something else as well: key supports for our own stumbling path to maturity and kindness. Mas ele também estava convencido de que eles também devem aspirar a ser outra coisa: suportes-chave para nosso próprio caminho tropeçante para a maturidade e bondade. And they can do this because they are able to get into a place we need but rarely have access to: the inner lives of other people. E eles podem fazer isso porque são capazes de entrar em um lugar que precisamos, mas raramente temos acesso: a vida interior de outras pessoas. In “What is art?”, Tolstoy was mostly writing about the works of other authors, but it is really his own achievement that he is, indirectly and modestly, summing up. Em “O que é arte?”, Tolstói escrevia principalmente sobre as obras de outros autores, mas é realmente sua própria realização que ele está, indireta e modestamente, resumindo.

Great writers shouldn’t ever be just helping their readers pass the time. Grandes escritores nunca deveriam estar apenas ajudando seus leitores a passar o tempo. Their writing must be a form of therapy, an attempt to educate us towards emotional health and ethical good sense. Sua escrita deve ser uma forma de terapia, uma tentativa de nos educar para a saúde emocional e o bom senso ético. As they aged, the tensions between Leo and and his wife Sophia grew. À medida que envelheciam, as tensões entre Leo e sua esposa Sophia cresciam.

He complained that they had “totally opposite ideas of the meaning of existence”. Ele reclamou que eles tinham “ideias totalmente opostas sobre o significado da existência”. Yet he insisted that even as Sophia “grew more and more irritable, despotic and uncontrollable” he continued to love her, though he admitted that he had given up trying to express his feelings. Ainda, ele insistiu que, mesmo quando Sophia “ficou cada vez mais irritável, despótica e incontrolável”, ele continuou a amá-la, embora admitisse que havia desistido de tentar expressar seus sentimentos. “There is no greater tragedy than the tragedy of the marital bed”, he wrote. “Não há tragédia maior do que a tragédia do leito conjugal”, escreveu. Finally, when he was past eighty, Tolstoy couldn’t take it any more, and deserted his wife and family. Finalmente, quando passou dos oitenta anos, Tolstói não aguentou mais e abandonou a esposa e a família. He ran away in the middle of a freezing November night, caught pneumonia and died at the nearby railway station, where he was waiting for a train. Ele fugiu no meio de uma noite gelada de novembro, pegou pneumonia e morreu na estação ferroviária próxima, onde esperava o trem. Tolstoy’s funeral was a major public occasion. O funeral de Tolstói foi uma grande ocasião pública.

Thousands showed up from across Russia and the world. Milhares apareceram de toda a Rússia e do mundo. This was fitting, for his central proposal has enormous social implications. Isso era apropriado, pois sua proposta central tem enormes implicações sociais.

Tolstoy realised that our picture of what other people are like is a great driving force of relationships, economics and politics. Tolstoi percebeu que nossa imagem de como as outras pessoas são é uma grande força motriz de relacionamentos, economia e política. He held up the tantalising idea that art could be the major vehicle for getting more accurate – and often much kinder – ideas about what is going on in the minds (and lives) of others people. Ele sustentou a ideia tentadora de que a arte poderia ser o principal veículo para obter ideias mais precisas – e muitas vezes muito mais gentis – sobre o que está acontecendo nas mentes (e vidas) de outras pessoas. His body was taken back to his house and buried in the garden, under some trees where he liked to play as a child. Seu corpo foi levado de volta para sua casa e enterrado no jardim, debaixo de algumas árvores onde ele gostava de brincar quando criança.