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Crash Course 2: Philosophy., 02a. How to Argue - Philosophical Reasoning. Part 1/2.

02a. How to Argue - Philosophical Reasoning. Part 1/2.

Crash Course Philosophy is brought to you by Squarespace. Squarespace: share your passion with the world.

Hank Green: Aristotle once described humans as “the rational animal.” Well, actually, he said that “man is the rational animal,” but we don't have to be sexist just because he was.

And if you've ever gotten into an argument with someone about religion or politics or which Hemsworth is the hottest, then you've experienced how irrational people can be about their opinions.

But what Aristotle meant is that rationality is our distinguishing characteristic – it's what sets us apart from the beasts. And no matter how much you disagree with someone about God or Obama or Chris Hemsworth, you can at least grant that they are not beasts.

Because, most of the time at least, people can be persuaded. By arguments. You use arguments all the time -- in the comments, at family dinners, with your friends – you probably just don't think of them the same way that philosophers do.

When you try and convince your parents to loan you the car, or when you're talking up Crash Course to your friends, you are using arguments. Thanks, by the way.

Each time you tell someone to do or believe something -- or when you're explaining why you do or believe something -- you are giving an argument. The problem is, the vast majority of people aren't really good at arguments. We tend to confuse making a good argument with, like, having witty comebacks, or just making your points more loudly and angrily, instead of building a case on a solid foundation of logic. Which can be harder than it sounds.

But learning about arguments and strong reasoning will not only make you a better philosopher, it will also set you up to be a more persuasive person. Someone who people will listen to. Someone who's convincing. So, yeah, these skills are beneficial no matter what you want to do with your life. So you might as well know how to argue properly.

[Theme Music]

If you want to learn how to argue, then you should probably start about 2400 years ago, when Plato was laying out how reason can, and should, function in the human mind. He believed that we all have what he called a tripartite soul – what you might think of as your “self,” or your psyche, divided into three parts.

First, there's the rational, or logical part of the soul, which represents cool reason. This is the aspect of your self that seeks the truth and is swayed by facts and arguments. When you decide to stop eating bacon for two meals a day because, as delicious as it is, it's bad for you, then you make that decision with the guidance of the rational part of your soul. But then there's the spirited aspect, often described as the emotional part of the self, although that doesn't really quite capture it.

The spirited soul isn't just about feeling -- it's also about how your feelings fuel your actions. It's the part that responds in righteous anger at injustice, the part that drives your ambition, and calls upon you to protect others. It gives you a sense of honor and duty, and is swayed by sympathy.

So if you decide to stop eating bacon because you just finished reading Charlotte's Web, and now you're in love with Wilbur, then you're being guided by the spirited part of your soul. But we share the next part of our soul with other animals, be they pig, or moose, or aardvark.

The appetitive part is what drives you to eat, have sex, and protect yourself from danger. It is swayed by temptations that are carnal, and visceral. So at those times when you go ahead and just EAT ALL THE BACON because it just smells so dang good, the appetitive aspect of your soul is in control.

Now, Plato believed that the best human beings -- and I should point out here that Plato most definitely did believe that some people were better than others -- are always ruled by the rational part of their soul, because it works to keep the spirited and the appetitive parts in check.

People who allow themselves to be ruled by their spirited or appetitive selves are base, he believed, and not fully, properly human. Now, most of us don't buy into the concept of the tripartite soul anymore -- or the idea that some humans are less human than others. But we do understand that we're all motivated by physical desires, emotional impulses, and rational arguments. And philosophers continue to agree with Plato that reason should be in the driver's seat.

So, how do you know if you're good at it? How can you test your reasoning?

Well, let's head over to the Thought Bubble for some Flash Philosophy. Throughout this course, we're going to apply our philosophical skills by pondering puzzles, paradoxes, and thought experiments. Because remember: Philosophers love thinking about questions -- especially ones that don't have ready answers.

So think of these exercises as philosophical wind-sprints -- quick tests of your mental abilities.

And here's a doozy, from 20th century British thinker Bertrand Russell, one of the pioneers of what's known as analytic philosophy. Say there's a town in which all men are required by law to be clean-shaven. This town has only one barber, a man, who must follow strict rules:

● Rule number one: He must shave all men who do not shave themselves.

● Rule number two: He must not shave any man who does shave himself.

It's the nightmare of every libertarian and every mustachio'd hipster. But here's the question: Does the barber shave himself? Cause think about it: The barber only shaves men who don't shave themselves. So if he does shave himself, then he must not, because the barber's not allowed to shave guys who shave themselves.

But, if he doesn't shave himself, then he has to be shaved by the barber, because that's the law.

Russell came up with this puzzle to illustrate the fact that a group must always be a member of itself.

That means, in this case, that “all men who shave themselves” has to include every guy who shaves himself, including the barber. Otherwise, the logic that dictates the group's existence just doesn't hold up. And if the barber is a logical impossibility, then he can't exist, which means the reasoning behind his existence is inherently flawed. And philosophy doesn't tolerate flawed reasoning.

So, how do we make sure that we're ruled by good, sound, not-flawed reason?

By perfecting the art of the argument. An argument, in philosophy, isn't just a shouting match. Instead, philosophers maintain that your beliefs should always be backed up by reasons, which we call premises.

Premises form the structure of your argument. They offer evidence for your belief, and you can have as many premises as you like, as long as they support your conclusion, which is the thing that you actually believe.

So, let's dissect the anatomy of an argument. There are actually several different species of arguments. Probably the most familiar, and the easiest to carry out, is the deductive argument. The main rule of a deductive arguments is: if your premises are true, then your conclusion must be true. And knowing that something is actually true is very rare, and awesome.

02a. How to Argue - Philosophical Reasoning. Part 1/2. 02a. Wie man argumentiert - Philosophische Argumentation. Teil 1/2. 02a. Cómo argumentar - Razonamiento filosófico. Parte 1/2. 02a.議論の仕方 - 哲学的推論。パート1/2. 02a. Hoe te argumenteren - Filosofisch redeneren. Deel 1/2. 02a. Como Argumentar - Raciocínio Filosófico. Parte 1/2. 02a. Как аргументировать - Философское обоснование. Часть 1/2. 02a. Nasıl Tartışılır - Felsefi Akıl Yürütme. Bölüm 1/2. 02a. Як сперечатися - філософські міркування. Частина 1/2. 02a. 如何辩论 - 哲学推理。第 1/2 部分。

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Hank Green: Aristotle once described humans as “the rational animal.” Well, actually, he said that “man is the rational animal,” but we don’t have to be sexist just because he was. Hank Green: Aristoteles bir zamanlar insanları “rasyonel hayvan” olarak nitelendirdi. Eh, aslında, “insan rasyonel hayvan” demişti, ancak olduğu için cinsiyetçi olmak zorunda değiliz.

And if you’ve ever gotten into an argument with someone about religion or politics or which Hemsworth is the hottest, then you’ve experienced how irrational people can be about their opinions. Ve eğer hiç kimseyle din veya politika hakkında bir tartışmaya girmediyseniz ya da en sıcak olan Hemsworth ise, o zaman mantıksız insanların görüşleri hakkında ne kadar usta olabildiklerini gördünüz. І якщо ви коли-небудь сперечалися з кимось про релігію чи політику або про те, хто з Хемсворт найсексуальніший, то ви відчули, наскільки ірраціональними можуть бути люди у своїх думках.

But what Aristotle meant is that rationality is our distinguishing characteristic – it’s what sets us apart from the beasts. Pero lo que Aristóteles quería decir es que la racionalidad es nuestra característica distintiva, es lo que nos diferencia de las bestias. Ancak Aristoteles'in kastettiği rasyonellik bizim ayırt edici özelliğimizdir - bizi canavarlardan ayıran şey budur. Але Аристотель мав на увазі, що раціональність є нашою відмінною рисою - це те, що відрізняє нас від тварин. And no matter how much you disagree with someone about God or Obama or Chris Hemsworth, you can at least grant that they are not beasts. Ve birileriyle Tanrı, Obama veya Chris Hemsworth hakkında ne kadar aynı fikirde olursanız olun, en azından onların canavar olmadıklarını söyleyebilirsiniz. І незалежно від того, наскільки ви не згодні з кимось щодо Бога, Обами чи Кріса Хемсворта, ви можете принаймні визнати, що вони не є звірами. 而且,无论你与某人关于上帝、奥巴马或克里斯·海姆斯沃斯的观点有多么不同,你至少可以承认他们不是野兽。

Because, most of the time at least, people can be persuaded. Porque, al menos la mayoría de las veces, se puede persuadir a la gente. Çünkü, en azından çoğu zaman insanlar ikna edilebilir. Тому що, принаймні, в більшості випадків, людей можна переконати. By arguments. You use arguments all the time -- in the comments, at family dinners, with your friends – you probably just don’t think of them the same way that philosophers do. Her zaman argüman kullanıyorsunuz - yorumlarda, aile yemeklerinde, arkadaşlarınızla - muhtemelen onları filozofların yaptığı gibi düşünmezsiniz. Ви постійно використовуєте аргументи - в коментарях, за сімейною вечерею, з друзями - але, можливо, ви просто не думаєте про них так само, як філософи.

When you try and convince your parents to loan you the car, or when you’re talking up Crash Course to your friends, you are using arguments. Ailenizi size aracı ödünç verme konusunda ikna etmeye çalıştığınızda veya arkadaşlarınızla Çarpışma Kursu hakkında konuşurken tartışmaları kullanıyorsunuzdur. Коли ви намагаєтеся переконати батьків позичити вам машину, або коли ви розповідаєте друзям про Crash Course, ви використовуєте аргументи. Thanks, by the way. До речі, дякую.

Each time you tell someone to do or believe something -- or when you’re explaining why you do or believe something -- you are giving an argument. Birine bir şeyi yapmasını veya bir şeye inanmasını - veya neden bir şeye inandığınızı veya bir şeye inandığınızı açıklarken - tartışıyorsunuz. Кожного разу, коли ви говорите комусь зробити щось або повірити в щось - або коли ви пояснюєте, чому ви робите або вірите в щось - ви наводите аргумент. The problem is, the vast majority of people aren’t really good at arguments. El problema es que a la inmensa mayoría de la gente no se le dan bien los argumentos. Sorun şu ki, insanların büyük çoğunluğu tartışmalarda pek iyi değil. Проблема в тому, що переважна більшість людей не дуже добре вміють сперечатися. We tend to confuse making a good argument with, like, having witty comebacks, or just making your points more loudly and angrily, instead of building a case on a solid foundation of logic. Tendemos a confundir un buen argumento con una respuesta ingeniosa o con exponer los puntos de vista de forma más enérgica y airada, en lugar de construir un caso sobre una base lógica sólida. Sağlam bir mantık temeli üzerinde bir dava oluşturmak yerine, esprili geri dönüşlerle iyi bir argüman yapmak ya da sadece yüksek sesle ve öfkeyle puanlarınızı vermekle karıştırmak eğilimindeyiz. Ми схильні плутати хороші аргументи з дотепними репліками, або просто голосно і сердито висловлювати свої міркування, замість того, щоб будувати аргументацію на міцному фундаменті логіки. Which can be harder than it sounds. Bu seslerden daha zor olabilir. Що може бути складніше, ніж здається.

But learning about arguments and strong reasoning will not only make you a better philosopher, it will also set you up to be a more persuasive person. Fakat argümanları ve güçlü akıl yürütmeyi öğrenmek sizi yalnızca daha iyi bir filozof yapmakla kalmayacak, aynı zamanda sizi daha ikna edici bir kişi olmaya da hazırlayacaktır. Але знання про аргументи та сильну аргументацію не тільки зробить вас кращим філософом, але й налаштує вас на те, щоб бути більш переконливою людиною. Someone who people will listen to. İnsanların dinleyeceği biri. Someone who’s convincing. İkna edici biri. So, yeah, these skills are beneficial no matter what you want to do with your life. Yani, evet, bu beceriler hayatınızla ne yapmak istediğiniz hiç önemli değil. So you might as well know how to argue properly. Así que más vale que sepas argumentar como es debido. Öyleyse, doğru şekilde nasıl tartışılacağını da biliyor olabilirsin. Тож вам варто знати, як правильно сперечатися.

[Theme Music]

If you want to learn how to argue, then you should probably start about 2400 years ago, when Plato was laying out how reason can, and should, function in the human mind. Si quieres aprender a argumentar, probablemente deberías empezar hace unos 2.400 años, cuando Platón exponía cómo puede y debe funcionar la razón en la mente humana. Nasıl tartışılacağını öğrenmek istiyorsan, Platon'un nedenini insan zihninde nasıl işleyebileceğini ve yapması gerektiğine karar verdiğinde 2400 yıl önce başlamalısın. Якщо ви хочете навчитися сперечатися, то, ймовірно, вам слід почати приблизно 2400 років тому, коли Платон описував, як розум може і повинен функціонувати в людському розумі. He believed that we all have what he called a tripartite soul – what you might think of as your “self,” or your psyche, divided into three parts. Üçlü bir ruh olarak adlandırdığı her şeye sahip olduğumuza inanıyordu - “kendin” ya da ruhun olarak düşünebileceğin şeyler üç bölüme ayrıldı. Він вважав, що всі ми маємо те, що він називав потрійною душею - те, що ви можете вважати своїм "Я", або своєю психікою, розділеною на три частини.

First, there’s the rational, or logical part of the soul, which represents cool reason. En primer lugar, está la parte racional o lógica del alma, que representa la razón fría. İlk önce, ruhun mantıklı veya mantıklı bir parçası var, ki bu harika bir nedeni temsil ediyor. 首先,灵魂中有理性或逻辑的部分,它代表着冷静的推理。 This is the aspect of your self that seeks the truth and is swayed by facts and arguments. Это тот аспект Вашего "я", который ищет истину и опирается на факты и аргументы. Bu, kendinizin gerçeği arayan ve gerçekler ve argümanlar tarafından sallanan yönüdür. Це аспект вашого "я", який шукає правду і керується фактами та аргументами. 这是你自我寻求真理并受事实和论据左右的方面。 When you decide to stop eating bacon for two meals a day because, as delicious as it is, it’s bad for you, then you make that decision with the guidance of the rational part of your soul. Günde iki öğün pastırma yemeyi bırakmaya karar verdiğinizde, ne kadar lezzetli olursa olsun, sizin için kötü, o zaman bu kararı ruhunuzun rasyonel kısmının rehberliği ile alırsınız. Коли ви вирішуєте припинити їсти бекон двічі на день, тому що, яким би смачним він не був, він шкідливий для вас, ви приймаєте це рішення, керуючись раціональною частиною своєї душі. But then there’s the spirited aspect, often described as the emotional part of the self, although that doesn’t really quite capture it. Pero también está el aspecto espiritual, que a menudo se describe como la parte emocional del ser, aunque eso no lo describe del todo. Ama sonra, çoğu zaman kendisinin duygusal bir parçası olarak tanımlanan ruhlu bir yön var, ancak bu onu tam anlamıyla yakalayamıyor. Але є ще й духовний аспект, який часто називають емоційною частиною "я", хоча це не зовсім точно його відображає.

The spirited soul isn’t just about feeling -- it’s also about how your feelings fuel your actions. Ruhlu ruh sadece hissetmekle ilgili değildir - aynı zamanda duygularınızın eylemlerinizi nasıl yaktığıyla da ilgilidir. Одухотворена душа - це не тільки про почуття, а й про те, як ваші почуття підживлюють ваші дії. It’s the part that responds in righteous anger at injustice, the part that drives your ambition, and calls upon you to protect others. Adaletsizliğe karşı haklı öfkeyle cevap veren, hırsınızı yönlendiren ve sizi başkalarını korumaya davet eden kısım. Це та частина, яка реагує праведним гнівом на несправедливість, та частина, яка керує вашими амбіціями і закликає вас захищати інших. It gives you a sense of honor and duty, and is swayed by sympathy. Size onur ve görev duygusu verir ve sempati tarafından sallanır. Це дає вам почуття честі та обов'язку, і на нього впливає симпатія. 它给你一种荣誉感和责任感,并受到同情心的影响。

So if you decide to stop eating bacon because you just finished reading Charlotte’s Web, and now you’re in love with Wilbur, then you’re being guided by the spirited part of your soul. Así que si decides dejar de comer beicon porque acabas de terminar de leer La telaraña de Carlota y ahora estás enamorada de Wilbur, entonces te está guiando la parte espiritual de tu alma. Yani pastırmayı yemeye karar verirseniz, çünkü Charlotte'un Web'ini okumayı yeni bitirdiniz ve şimdi Wilbur'a aşıksınız, o zaman ruhunuzun ruhlu kısmına rehberlik ediyorsunuz. But we share the next part of our soul with other animals, be they pig, or moose, or aardvark. Ama ruhumuzun bir sonraki bölümünü diğer hayvanlarla paylaşırız, domuz, geyik veya yaban domuzu olsun.

The appetitive part is what drives you to eat, have sex, and protect yourself from danger. İştah açıcı kısım sizi yemeye, seks yapmaya ve kendinizi tehlikelerden korumana neden olur. Апетитна частина - це те, що спонукає вас їсти, займатися сексом і захищатися від небезпеки. It is swayed by temptations that are carnal, and visceral. Его подстерегают плотские, вязкие соблазны. Karnal ve içten olan baştan çıkarmalar tarafından sallanır. Вона піддається спокусам плотським і тілесним. 它受到肉体和本能的诱惑所左右。 So at those times when you go ahead and just EAT ALL THE BACON because it just smells so dang good, the appetitive aspect of your soul is in control. Öyleyse devam edip TÜM BACON'U YEMEK, çünkü sadece çok güzel bir şekilde kokuyor, ruhunuzun iştahlı yönü kontrol altında. Тому в ті моменти, коли ви просто з'їдаєте весь бекон, тому що він так смачно пахне, апетитний аспект вашої душі контролює вас.

Now, Plato believed that the best human beings -- and I should point out here that Plato most definitely did believe that some people were better than others -- are always ruled by the rational part of their soul, because it works to keep the spirited and the appetitive parts in check. Şimdi, Plato, en iyi insanların - ve burada, Platon'un kesinlikle bazılarının diğerlerinden daha iyi olduğuna inandıklarına - ruhlarının rasyonel kısımları tarafından yönetildiğine - kesinlikle ruhlu olmaya devam ettiğine inandıklarına - inandığına inanıyordu. ve iştah açıcı parçalar kontrol edilir. Платон вважав, що найкращими людьми - і тут я повинен зазначити, що Платон, безумовно, вірив, що деякі люди кращі за інших - завжди керує раціональна частина їхньої душі, тому що вона працює над тим, щоб тримати в узді духовну і апетитну частини. 现在,柏拉图认为,最优秀的人——我应该在这里指出,柏拉图确实相信有些人比其他人优秀——总是受灵魂中理性部分的支配,因为它能抑制精神和欲望部分。

People who allow themselves to be ruled by their spirited or appetitive selves are base, he believed, and not fully, properly human. En su opinión, las personas que se dejan dominar por sus espíritus o apetitos son viles y no son plenamente humanas. Ruh halindeki veya iştah açıcı benlikleri tarafından yönetilmelerine izin veren insanlar, temel olarak insan olmadığına inanıyorlar. Він вважав, що люди, які дозволяють керувати собою своїм духовним чи апетитним "я", є ницими і не повністю, по-людськи, справжніми людьми. Now, most of us don’t buy into the concept of the tripartite soul anymore -- or the idea that some humans are less human than others. La mayoría de nosotros ya no creemos en el concepto de alma tripartita, ni en la idea de que unos seres humanos son menos humanos que otros. Şimdi, çoğumuz artık üçlü ruh kavramını satın almıyoruz - ya da bazı insanların diğerlerinden daha az insan olduğu fikri. But we do understand that we’re all motivated by physical desires, emotional impulses, and rational arguments. Ama hepimizin fiziksel arzular, duygusal dürtüler ve rasyonel argümanlar tarafından motive olduğumuzu anlıyoruz. 但我们确实明白,我们都受到肉体欲望、情感冲动和理性论据的驱使。 And philosophers continue to agree with Plato that reason should be in the driver’s seat. Ve filozoflar Plato'ya katılmaya devam etmelerinin sebebi sürücünün koltuğunda olmalı.

So, how do you know if you’re good at it? Peki, iyi olup olmadığını nereden biliyorsun? How can you test your reasoning? Sebeplerinizi nasıl test edebilirsiniz?

Well, let’s head over to the Thought Bubble for some Flash Philosophy. Bueno, vamos a la Burbuja de Pensamiento para un poco de Filosofía Flash. Pekala, biraz Flash Felsefesi için Düşünce Balonuna gidelim. Throughout this course, we’re going to apply our philosophical skills by pondering puzzles, paradoxes, and thought experiments. Bu kurs boyunca, felsefi becerilerimizi bulmacaları, paradoksları ve düşünce deneylerini düşünerek uygulayacağız. Протягом цього курсу ми будемо застосовувати наші філософські навички, розмірковуючи над головоломками, парадоксами та мисленнєвими експериментами. 在整个课程中,我们将通过思考谜题、悖论和思想实验来运用我们的哲学技能。 Because remember: Philosophers love thinking about questions -- especially ones that don’t have ready answers. Çünkü hatırlayın: Filozoflar sorular hakkında düşünmeyi sever - özellikle hazır cevapları olmayanlar.

So think of these exercises as philosophical wind-sprints -- quick tests of your mental abilities. Piense en estos ejercicios como si fueran veletas filosóficas, pruebas rápidas de su capacidad mental. Yani bu alıştırmaları felsefi rüzgâr sprintleri olarak düşünün - zihinsel yeteneklerinizi hızlıca test edin. Тож сприймайте ці вправи як філософський вітро-спринт - швидкий тест ваших розумових здібностей.

And here’s a doozy, from 20th century British thinker Bertrand Russell, one of the pioneers of what’s known as analytic philosophy. Ve işte, bir serseri, 20. yüzyıldan kalma İngiliz düşünür Bertrand Russell, analitik felsefe olarak bilinenlerin öncülerinden. Say there’s a town in which all men are required by law to be clean-shaven. Digamos que hay una ciudad en la que todos los hombres están obligados por ley a ir bien afeitados. Diyelim ki tüm erkeklerin temiz traşlı olmaları için yasalarca gerekli. 假设有一座城镇,那里的法律要求所有男人都必须刮干净胡子。 This town has only one barber, a man, who must follow strict rules: Bu kasabada katı kurallara uyması gereken tek bir berber, bir adam var

● Rule number one: He must shave all men who do not shave themselves. ● Bir numaralı kural: Kendilerini tıraş etmeyen bütün erkekleri tıraş etmelidir. ● 第一条规则:他必须为所有不自己刮胡子的男人刮胡子。

● Rule number two: He must not shave any man who does shave himself. ● İki numaralı kural: Kendini tıraş eden hiç kimseyi tıraş etmemelidir.

It’s the nightmare of every libertarian and every mustachio’d hipster. Es la pesadilla de todo libertario y de todo hipster bigotudo. Her özgürlükçü ve bıyıklı hipsterlerin kabusu. But here’s the question: Does the barber shave himself? Ama işte soru: Kuaför kendini tıraş ediyor mu? 但问题是:理发师会给自己刮胡子吗? Cause think about it: The barber only shaves men who don’t shave themselves. Bunun hakkında düşünün: Kuaför sadece kendilerini tıraş etmeyen erkekleri tıraş eder. So if he does shave himself, then he must not, because the barber’s not allowed to shave guys who shave themselves. Öyleyse kendini tıraş ediyorsa, o zaman yapmamalı, çünkü berberin kendilerini tıraş eden erkekleri tıraş etmesine izin verilmiyor. Тож якщо він голиться, то не повинен, бо перукар не має права голити хлопців, які голяться самі.

But, if he doesn’t shave himself, then he has to be shaved by the barber, because that’s the law. Pero, si no se afeita él mismo, entonces tiene que afeitarlo el barbero, porque esa es la ley. Ancak, eğer kendisini tıraş etmezse, o zaman berber tarafından tıraş edilmek zorundadır, çünkü yasa budur.

Russell came up with this puzzle to illustrate the fact that a group must always be a member of itself. Russell bir bulmacanın bir grubun her zaman kendi üyesi olması gerektiğini açıklamak için ortaya çıktı. Рассел придумав цю головоломку, щоб проілюструвати той факт, що група завжди повинна бути членом самої себе. 罗素想出了这个谜题来说明一个事实:一个群体必然永远是它自己的一部分。

That means, in this case, that “all men who shave themselves” has to include every guy who shaves himself, including the barber. Eso significa, en este caso, que "todos los hombres que se afeitan a sí mismos" tiene que incluir a todos los tipos que se afeitan a sí mismos, incluido el barbero. Bu, bu durumda, “kendilerini tıraş eden tüm erkeklerin”, berber de dahil olmak üzere kendini tıraş eden her erkeğin dahil edilmesi gerektiği anlamına gelir. Otherwise, the logic that dictates the group’s existence just doesn’t hold up. De lo contrario, la lógica que dicta la existencia del grupo no se sostiene. Иначе логика, диктующая существование группы, просто не выдерживает критики. Aksi halde, grubun varlığını belirleyen mantık tam anlamıyla kalmaz. Інакше логіка, яка диктує існування групи, просто не витримує критики. And if the barber is a logical impossibility, then he can’t exist, which means the reasoning behind his existence is inherently flawed. Y si el barbero es una imposibilidad lógica, entonces no puede existir, lo que significa que el razonamiento detrás de su existencia es inherentemente defectuoso. А если парикмахер - это логическая невозможность, то он не может существовать, а значит, обоснование его существования изначально ущербно. Ve eğer berber mantıklı bir imkansızsa, o zaman var olamaz, bu onun varlığının arkasındaki mantığın doğal olarak kusurlu olduğu anlamına gelir. А якщо перукар є логічною неможливістю, то він не може існувати, а це означає, що обґрунтування його існування за своєю суттю є хибним. 如果理发师在逻辑上是不可能的,那么他就不可能存在,这意味着他存在背后的理由本质上是有缺陷的。 And philosophy doesn’t tolerate flawed reasoning. Ve felsefe, hatalı akıl yürütmeye tolerans göstermez. А філософія не терпить хибних міркувань.

So, how do we make sure that we’re ruled by good, sound, not-flawed reason? Entonces, ¿cómo nos aseguramos de que nos gobierna la razón buena, sana y no defectuosa? Peki, iyi, sağlam, kusurlu olmayan bir nedenden ötürü yönetildiğinden nasıl emin olabiliriz? Отже, як нам переконатися, що нами керує добрий, здоровий, бездоганний розум?

By perfecting the art of the argument. Argüman sanatını mükemmelleştirerek. Вдосконалюючи мистецтво аргументації. An argument, in philosophy, isn’t just a shouting match. Una discusión, en filosofía, no es sólo una pelea a gritos. Bir tartışma, felsefede, sadece bir bağırma maçı değildir. Аргумент у філософії - це не просто перепалка. Instead, philosophers maintain that your beliefs should always be backed up by reasons, which we call premises. Bunun yerine, filozoflar inançlarınızın daima öncül olarak adlandırdığımız nedenlerle desteklenmesi gerektiğini savunurlar. Натомість філософи стверджують, що ваші переконання завжди повинні бути підкріплені причинами, які ми називаємо передумовами.

Premises form the structure of your argument. Mülkiyet savınızın yapısını oluşturur. They offer evidence for your belief, and you can have as many premises as you like, as long as they support your conclusion, which is the thing that you actually believe. Ofrecen pruebas de tu creencia, y puedes tener tantas premisas como quieras, siempre que apoyen tu conclusión, que es lo que realmente crees. İnancınız için kanıtlar sunarlar ve sonucunuzu destekledikleri sürece, gerçekten inandığınız şeydir, istediğiniz kadar öncül olabilir. Вони пропонують докази вашої віри, і ви можете мати скільки завгодно передумов, якщо вони підтримують ваш висновок, тобто те, у що ви насправді вірите.

So, let’s dissect the anatomy of an argument. Öyleyse, tartışmanın anatomisini gözden geçirelim. There are actually several different species of arguments. Aslında birkaç farklı argüman türü var. 实际上存在几种不同的论点。 Probably the most familiar, and the easiest to carry out, is the deductive argument. Muhtemelen en tanıdık olan ve gerçekleştirmesi en kolay olanı tümdengelimli argümandır. Напевно, найвідомішим і найпростішим у застосуванні є дедуктивний аргумент. The main rule of a deductive arguments is: if your premises are true, then your conclusion must be true. Tümdengelimli argümanların ana kuralı şudur: öncülleriniz doğruysa, sonucunuz doğru olmalıdır. And knowing that something is actually true is very rare, and awesome. Ve bir şeyin gerçekten doğru olduğunu bilmek çok nadir ve müthiş bir şey. А усвідомлення того, що щось насправді є правдою, - це дуже рідкісне явище, і це дуже круто.