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Crash Course European History, Medieval Europe: Crash Course European History #1 (1)

Medieval Europe: Crash Course European History #1 (1)

Hello and welcome to Crash Course European history, I'm John Green,

and as you may know medieval Europe has a terrible reputation.

We often hear that it was disease and famine-ridden (which it was).

Children were supposedly forced to marry at six or eight or ten years old, which was not common,

although people did start marrying younger,

in part because they were also dying younger.

We hear that knights in shining armor slaughtered wantonly, albeit with good manners called chivalry, which is partly true,

although the chivalric code was in decline.

And we also hear that it wasn't safe to drink the water, so they drank beer exclusively,

which more on that in a moment. But yeah, today we're turning our attention to these so-called "Middle Ages."

But right, so about beer. In those days, people did drink beer and ale.

The were nutritious (and still are), but they also drank other things: milk, other beverages, and especially water.

There were wells with safe and delicious drinking water.

Still, it's true that a lot of bad things did happen in the 14th and 15th centuries:

The Black Death, the Great Schism in the Catholic Church, and the Hundred Years War.

Also, in the 14th century,

the Little Ice Age began, which meant cooler temperatures and declining harvests,

and that contributed to stunting and starvation.

But let's begin with the Black Death, a huge pandemic of a disease called Bubonic Plague,

which spread to Europe from Asia. Many experts believe the plague originated in Tibet as a localized epidemic

but then spread carried by rats and mice and fleas.

And those animals were able to travel widely because humans were traveling, and the fleas and rats hitched rides with us,

so in that sense,

the plague was a product of growing human interconnectedness.

Bubonic plague is a horrible disease. After infection with the bacterium Yersinia Pestis,

lymph nodes swell and sometimes burst; victims often get high fevers and vomit blood;

gangrene can cause extremities and facial features to turn black with necrosis,

hence "the Black Death";

and depending on the strain, somewhere between 50 and 60 percent of people infected died.

These days, bubonic plague is treatable by antibiotics,

But such treatments have only been around for a few decades. As recently as the 20th century, outbreaks in India and China

killed more than 12 million people.

But the 14th century's Black Death was even worse.

Around 25 million people had died in Asia by the time the plague reached Constantinople in 1347,

and within four years, a staggering number of Europeans had died from it,

often within two days of becoming infected.

People faced a heartbreaking decision: whether to risk caring for their ailing loved ones,

or leave them to die alone in the hopes of avoiding infection.

Some areas lost up to 80 percent of their population.

The latest research claims that in Europe as a whole, around half of all people died.

Death haunted every moment. It's difficult to grasp

just how profound the Black Death was,

but imagine losing half of your community in a few years to a poorly understood disease.

Giovanni Boccaccio wrote, "Many died in the open street.

Others dying in their houses, made it known by the stench of their rotting bodies.

Consecrated churchyards did not suffice for the burial of the vast multitude of bodies,

which were heaped by the hundreds in vast trenches,

...like goods in a ship's hold. "How different has life become in the last 650 years?"

The bacterium that caused the Black Death, is now available as a plush stuffed

...bacterium. They don't actually look that threatening, especially with eyes. But yeah, this is Yersenia Pestis!

(Blown up and made into a stuffed animal.) No bacterium! Also you want to know an interesting fact about me?

I- I can't juggle.

Amid all this devastation, the Hundred Years War added sustained turmoil and destruction.

The war was fought between the rulers of the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France, over who would rule large

swaths of continental Europe, and it actually lasted at least 116 years, beginning in 1337.

One of the most interesting questions in history is: "Whether war leads to instability or instability leads to war?"

and the truth is probably

..Yes. Both. Like, poor harvests and disease outbreaks make war more likely,

but war also worsens poor harvests and disease outbreaks.

So amid the huge shocks to Europe that accompanied the Black Death, the Hundred Years War

increased instability in the food supply, and also in long-held cultural beliefs, like The Code of Chivalry.

Chivalry was a set of behaviors

toward knightly opponents, whom one would treat on the battlefield with respect and trust, not killing your fellow knight,

but, instead, holding him for ransom in good condition.

Such noble behavior separated the knight from common archers and mercenaries.

But English Kings began to hire such mercenaries from across Europe, who viciously looted and plundered in a way

that wasn't terribly chivalrous. And some of these knights for hire found it so profitable to fight that even during

truces and peace treaties, they kept on marauding. The 116 Years War also changed the nature of war through innovation.

Like, non-aristocratic soldiers from England and Wales used the longbow,

famed for its combined deadly speed and accuracy, and that helped the English prevail at the Battle of Agincourt

Before the 100 Years War, the French had innovated with cannons on ships,

which the English later used in the war's land battles. Both types of cannons, by the way,

relied on gunpowder, a Chinese invention. The Hundred Years War also saw the

spectacular rise and fall of Joan of Arc, born to a prosperous French peasant family in 1412.

When she was sixteen, England had won enough battles to take over the French throne, confirmed in the

1420 Treaty of Troyes, and France seemed leaderless.

Visions told Joan to get French forces to take to the field and drive out the English, so that

Charles, whom she believed to be the rightful heir to the French throne, could be crowned,

and astonishingly this proved successful.

By 1429, Charles was Charles VII of France.

But in the process, the Burgundians, a competing and powerful royal court,

captured Joan and turned her over to the English, who burned her at the stake in 1431.

It's a bad way to go. Although, there are no good ways.

If it sounds like European life in the 14th and 15th centuries was hard,

well, it was. Murder and violent crime rates were likely much higher than they are today,

and dying in war was a pretty routine risk.

Malnutrition and stunting were also very common.

Child mortality was astonishingly high; perhaps as many as 50% of children died before the age of five.

But at least people were surrounded by the comforts of religion.

The comforts of religion, however,

turned out not to be that comforting.

Let's go to the Thought Bubble.

In 1300, Pope Boniface VIII was the leader of the Catholic Church,

but he was also an important political figure in Europe.

One of Europe's great questions was whether the Church had authority over the entire Catholic world,

or if kings had the ultimate authority in their kingdoms? Could, for instance, King Philip IV of France

tax the Catholic clergy in France?

Pope Boniface thought: No. He was from a well-connected and powerful family,

and at the start of the 14th century, he was flexing his muscles across the papacy,

ultimately declaring in 1302 that the Pope had supreme power over everyone!

The timing was bad in that kings were also starting to flex their muscles.

They wanted tax money from the Church to expand their administration. Boniface threatened to

excommunicate Philip, who then had the Pope kidnapped.

Boniface was reportedly tortured in captivity and died soon after his release in 1303.

By 1305, Philip had arranged for the election of a French Pope and his installation at

Avignon, just inside what was then the French border,

which made people think that the papacy was under the thumb of French kings and distant from its

spiritual mission, which you know, it was.

In 1377 Pope Gregory XI decided to move back to Rome,

but then he died.

The Cardinals, surrounded by loyal Romans, then elected an Italian pope,

causing the French Cardinals to scatter and regroup to elect a French pope to head the papal court in Avignon,

which meant there were two popes and a schism had occurred.

Historians, in fact, call it the Great Schism.

Thanks, Thought Bubble.

The Great Schism was a huge blow to the Church and its claims of spiritual leadership,

which had already been harmed by the clergy's inability

or unwillingness to provide spiritual guidance during the Black Death.

Priests and monks and nuns had been as frightened of and as vulnerable to

death as everyone else.

And now it wasn't even clear which pope was the real Pope,

or which church was the real Church.

This disunity, combined with stories of decidedly unspiritual indulgences,

all served to undermine the church's authority.

Instead, spiritual and other direction came from common people, not the high-and-mighty, like

Catherine of Siena, for instance, was an ordinary young woman of intense religious faith,

who was the one who successfully urged Pope Gregory XI to return to Rome. Although then of course, he died.

Before Catherine died in 1380 at the age of 33,

she'd undertaken several diplomatic missions between the Church and Italian cities

and had traveled across the region urging the clergy to reform themselves

and fortify their spiritual ministry.

Ultimately others in the Church called a council to end the Great Schism, and church leaders

finally elected a single pope, Martin V, in 1417.

Although before that, things got truly out of control when a third Pope was elected for a while.

I mean, if you wanted to be Pope, your chances really were never better than in the late Middle Ages.

All of this meant that European Christendom really was declining in power,

and in 1453, the Ottomans, a Turkic ethnic group of Muslims captured the capital of the Byzantine Empire,

with the help, by the way, of a Hungarian munitions expert who knew about cannons.

The Byzantine Emperor had felt that the munition expert's fees were too high.

The Ottomans already controlled parts of southeastern Europe,

but capturing the Byzantine capital and beheading its Emperor was a big deal.

It was the final fall of the Roman Empire, and Islam went on to replace Christianity as the leading religion in

Constantinople, as its famed Cathedral became the Hagia Sophia mosque.

And control of Constantinople was a big deal for many reasons, including trade routes,

but also because Constantinople at the time was probably Europe's least terrible city

Meanwhile, the aforementioned use of mercenaries helped undermine the feudal system,

in which everyone owed loyalty to a lord, from knights to a serf, who was bound to that lord's land.

The Black Death and persistent warfare helped change that too.

And there were also far fewer humans, which meant fewer people to work in agriculture,

so serfs could demand their freedom because their labor had become much more valuable.

Indeed, peasants rebelled when the nobility failed to meet their demands for better conditions.

Like in the Peasants Revolt of 1381 in England,

they murdered nobles and sacked castles and manor houses.

And in cities, urban artisans wanted higher pay and an end to higher taxes.

In 1378, The Ciompi, or workers in the cloth trade, rebelled in Florence, demanding an end to harsh

prosecution for debt and an end to the imposition of extra taxes.

They marched through the streets, shouting, "Long live the little people."

The expansion of rights for artisans and farm workers

would of course be a very long process,

but their growing power and the decline of feudalism was a dramatic shift for Europe.

Even warfare itself had changed. People no longer fought for ethical reasons or for God's glory


Medieval Europe: Crash Course European History #1 (1) Europa Medieval: Curso acelerado de Historia Europea nº 1 (1) Europe médiévale : cours intensif d'histoire européenne #1 (1) Europa medievale: Corso accelerato di storia europea #1 (1) 中世ヨーロッパクラッシュコース ヨーロッパ史 #1 (1) 중세 유럽: 크래쉬 코스 유럽사 #1 (1) Średniowieczna Europa: Przyspieszony kurs historii Europy #1 (1) Europa Medieval: Curso Rápido de História Europeia #1 (1) Средневековая Европа: Краткий курс европейской истории #1 (1) Ortaçağ Avrupası: Crash Course Avrupa Tarihi #1 (1) Середньовічна Європа: Прискорений курс європейської історії #1 (1) 中世纪欧洲:欧洲历史速成班#1 (1) 中世紀歐洲:歐洲歷史速成班#1 (1)

Hello and welcome to Crash Course European history, I'm John Green, Привет и добро пожаловать на Ускоренный курс Европейской истории. Я Джон Грин, Merhaba ve Crash Course ile Avrupa Tarihine hoşgeldiniz, Ben John Green,

and as you may know medieval Europe has a terrible reputation. e, como deve saber, a Europa medieval tem uma péssima reputação. и, как вы знаете, Средневековая Европа имеет ужасную репутацию. Ve bildiğiniz gibi ortaçağ Avrupa'sı çok kötü bir üne sahip.

We often hear that it was disease and famine-ridden (which it was). We often hear that it was disease and famine-ridden (which it was). 私たちはよく、病気と飢饉に見舞われていたと聞く(実際そうだった)。 Muitas vezes ouvimos que era doença e fome (o que era). Мы часто слышим, что она была полна болезней и голода, и это так. Sık sık hastalıkların ve açlıkların hüküm sürdüğünü duyuyoruz (ki öyleydi). Ми часто чуємо, що це був час хвороб і голоду (так воно і було).

Children were supposedly forced to marry at six or eight or ten years old, which was not common, 子どもたちは6、8、10歳で結婚させられたとされるが、それは一般的なことではなかった、 As crianças eram supostamente obrigadas a casar aos seis, oito ou dez anos, o que não era comum, Детей, предположительно, заставляли жениться в 6, или 8, или 10 лет, что не было обыкновенным явлением, Rivayete göre çocuklar; altı, sekiz ya da on yaşlarında zorla evlendiriliyorlardı. Aslında bu, insanların daha erken Дітей нібито змушували одружуватися в шість, вісім чи десять років, що було нечасто,

although people did start marrying younger, しかし、人々は若いうちに結婚するようになった、 embora as pessoas tenham começado a casar-se mais cedo, хотя люди действительно стали жениться раньше, evlenip daha erken ölmelerine rağmen

in part because they were also dying younger. 若くして死んでいったからでもある。 em parte porque também estavam a morrer mais novos. отчасти потому, что они и умирали раньше. yaygın değildi.

We hear that knights in shining armor slaughtered wantonly, albeit with good manners called chivalry, which is partly true, نسمع أن الفرسان في الدرع اللامع ذبحوا بوحشية ، وإن كان ذلك بأدب حميدة تسمى الفروسية ، وهذا صحيح جزئيًا ، 私たちは、騎士道と呼ばれるマナーを守りながらも、鎧に身を包んだ騎士たちが乱暴に殺戮を行ったと聞く、 Ouvimos dizer que os cavaleiros de armadura reluzente matavam sem escrúpulos, embora com boas maneiras chamadas cavalheirismo, o que é parcialmente verdade, Şövalyelerin ışıltılı zırhlarıyla ve şövalyeliğin iyi terbiyeyi öğütleyen kurallarıyla katliamlar yaptıklarını işitiyoruz. Aslında bu da şövalyelik

although the chivalric code was in decline. على الرغم من أن رمز الفروسية كان في تراجع. しかし、騎士道精神は衰退の一途をたどっていた。 embora o código de cavalaria estivesse em declínio. kodunun öneminin düşüşte olmasına rağmen doğru. 尽管骑士法典正在衰落。

And we also hear that it wasn't safe to drink the water, so they drank beer exclusively, ونسمع أيضًا أنه ليس من الآمن شرب الماء ، لذلك كانوا يشربون الجعة حصريًا ، また、水を飲むのは安全ではないので、もっぱらビールを飲んでいたとも聞いている、 E também ouvimos dizer que não era seguro beber a água, por isso bebiam exclusivamente cerveja, Ve yine su içmek tehlikeli olduğundan özellikle bira içtiklerini de duyuyoruz.

which more on that in a moment. But yeah, today we're turning our attention to these so-called "Middle Ages." الذي سيتحدث أكثر عن ذلك في لحظة. لكن نعم ، نوجه انتباهنا اليوم إلى ما يسمى بـ "العصور الوسطى". それについてはまた後ほど。さて、今日はいわゆる "中世 "に注目しよう。 que falaremos mais sobre isso daqui a pouco. Mas sim, hoje estamos a voltar a nossa atenção para a chamada "Idade Média". Но да, сегодня мы обратим внимание на так называемые Средние века. Buna da birazdan değineceğiz. Her neyse, bugün dikkatimizi sözüm ona "Orta Çağ'a" vereceğiz.

But right, so about beer. In those days, people did drink beer and ale. لكن صحيح ، فيما يتعلق بالبيرة. في تلك الأيام ، كان الناس يشربون الجعة والبيرة. Mas, certo, então sobre a cerveja. Naquela altura, as pessoas bebiam cerveja e ale. Так вот по поводу пива: в те времена люди действительно пили пиво и эль. Ah, bira konusu vardı! O günlerde insanlar bira ve ale içti.

The were nutritious (and still are), but they also drank other things: milk, other beverages, and especially water. كانوا مغذيين (ولا يزالون) ، لكنهم شربوا أيضًا أشياء أخرى: الحليب والمشروبات الأخرى ، وخاصة الماء. Eram nutritivos (e ainda o são), mas também bebiam outras coisas: leite, outras bebidas e, sobretudo, água. Они были питательны, и таковы до сих пор. Но они пили и другие штуки: молоко, другие напитки, и, особенно, воду. Bunlar besleyeciydi (hala öyleler) ama başka şeyler de içtiler: süt, diğer içecekler ve özellikle su gibi.

There were wells with safe and delicious drinking water. كانت هناك آبار بمياه شرب آمنة ولذيذة. 安全でおいしい飲み水の井戸があった。 Havia poços com água potável segura e deliciosa. У них были колодцы с безопасной и вкусной питьевой водой. Sağlıklı ve lezzetli içme suları ulan kuyular vardı.

Still, it's true that a lot of bad things did happen in the 14th and 15th centuries: ومع ذلك ، من الصحيح أن الكثير من الأشياء السيئة حدثت في القرنين الرابع عشر والخامس عشر: No entanto, é verdade que muitas coisas más aconteceram nos séculos XIV e XV: Тем не менее, правда, что много плохих вещей произошло в XIV-XV веках: Yine de, 14'üncü ve 15'inci yüzyıllarda birçok kötü şeyin yaşandığı doğru.

The Black Death, the Great Schism in the Catholic Church, and the Hundred Years War. الموت الأسود والانشقاق الكبير في الكنيسة الكاثوليكية وحرب المائة عام. 黒死病、カトリック教会の大分裂、そして百年戦争。 A Peste Negra, o Grande Cisma da Igreja Católica e a Guerra dos Cem Anos. Чёрная смерть, Великий раскол в Католической церкви и Столетняя война. Kara Veba, Katolik Kilisesi'inde yaşanan büyük bölünme ve Yüzyıl Savaşları gibi. 黑死病、天主教会大分裂和百年战争。

Also, in the 14th century, أيضا ، في القرن الرابع عشر ، Também, no século XIV, Также в XIV веке начался Малый ледниковый период, Ayrıca 14'üncü yüzyılda, 此外,在 14 世纪,

the Little Ice Age began, which meant cooler temperatures and declining harvests, بدأ العصر الجليدي الصغير ، مما أدى إلى انخفاض درجات الحرارة وانخفاض المحاصيل ، 小氷河期が始まり、気温が下がり、収穫が減少した、 começou a Pequena Idade do Gelo, que se traduziu em temperaturas mais baixas e no declínio das colheitas, что означало снижение температур и гибель урожая, Küçük Buz Çağı başladı. Bu da daha düşük sıcaklıklar ve azalan hasatlar anlamına geliyordu. 小冰河时代开始了,这意味着气温下降和收成下降,

and that contributed to stunting and starvation. وساهم ذلك في التقزم والمجاعة. それが発育不全と飢餓の一因となった。 e isso contribuiu para o atraso de crescimento e a fome. которые привели к задержкам в росте и голоду. Bu da durulmaya ve açlığa neden oldu.

But let's begin with the Black Death, a huge pandemic of a disease called Bubonic Plague, لكن لنبدأ بالموت الأسود ، جائحة ضخم من مرض يسمى الطاعون الدبلي ، しかし、まずは黒死病から始めよう。黒死病はブボニック・ペストと呼ばれる病気で大流行した、 Mas comecemos pela Peste Negra, uma enorme pandemia de uma doença chamada Peste Bubónica, Ama gelin Asya'dan Avrupa'ya yayılan Kara Ölüm denilen büyük salgın hastalık

which spread to Europe from Asia. Many experts believe the plague originated in Tibet as a localized epidemic ペストはアジアからヨーロッパに広まった。多くの専門家は、ペストはチベットで局地的に流行したと考えている。 que se propagou para a Europa a partir da Ásia. Muitos especialistas acreditam que a peste teve origem no Tibete como uma epidemia localizada Многие эксперты считают, что чума появилась в Тибете как локальная эпидемия, Kara Ölüm ile başlayalım. Birçok uzman vebanın Tibet'te yerel bir salgın olarak başladığına ama

but then spread carried by rats and mice and fleas. mas depois espalham-se através de ratazanas, ratos e pulgas. но затем распространилась, переносимая крысами, мышами и блохами. zamanla sıçanlar, fareler ve pireler aracılığıyla yayıldığına inanır.

And those animals were able to travel widely because humans were traveling, and the fleas and rats hitched rides with us, そしてそれらの動物が広く移動できたのは、人間が移動していたからであり、ノミやネズミは私たちに便乗したのである、 E esses animais foram capazes de viajar muito porque os humanos estavam viajando, e as pulgas e ratos pegaram carona conosco, Эти животные могли так далеко путешествовать, потому что путешествовали люди. А блохи и крысы становились нашими попутчиками. Ve bu hayvanlar rahatça seyahat edebiliyordu çünkü insanlar da seyahat ediyordu. Pireler ve sıçanlar da bizimle

so in that sense, そういう意味では portanto, nesse sentido, В этом смысле, чума была результатом растущих взаимосвязей между людьми. beraber yola koyuldular. Bu bakımdan

the plague was a product of growing human interconnectedness. 疫病は、人間の相互関係の増大の産物であった。 a peste foi um produto da crescente interconexão humana. veba, insanlar arasında büyüyen bağlantının bir ürünüydü.

Bubonic plague is a horrible disease. After infection with the bacterium Yersinia Pestis, ペストは恐ろしい病気である。エルシニア・ペスティスという細菌に感染した後に発症する、 A peste bubónica é uma doença horrível. Após a infeção com a bactéria Yersinia Pestis, Бубонная чума - ужасная болезнь: после заражения бактериями чумной палочки, Kara Veba korkunç bir hastalıktır. Yersinia Pestis denen bakterinin bulaşmasından sonra

lymph nodes swell and sometimes burst; victims often get high fevers and vomit blood; リンパ節が腫れ、時には破裂することもある。被害者はしばしば高熱を出し、吐血する; Os gânglios linfáticos incham e por vezes rebentam; as vítimas têm frequentemente febres altas e vomitam sangue; лимфоузлы начинают пухнуть и иногда лопаться. Жертвы часто страдают от высокой температуры, их рвёт кровью; linf boğumları şişer ve bazen de patlardı. Mağdurlar sıklıkla yüksek ateşe yakalanır ve kan kusarlardı.

gangrene can cause extremities and facial features to turn black with necrosis, 壊疽になると、四肢や顔面が壊死して黒くなる、 A gangrena pode fazer com que as extremidades e as características faciais se tornem negras com necrose, гангрена заставляет конечности и части лица чернеть от омертвения, Kangren, uzuvlar ve yüz organlarının siyaha çalıp çürümesine neden olabilir. 坏疽可导致四肢和面部特征因坏死而变黑,

hence "the Black Death"; daí a "Peste Negra"; отсюда и название "Чёрная смерть". Bu nedenle de Kara Ölüm adı verilir.

and depending on the strain, somewhere between 50 and 60 percent of people infected died. 菌株にもよるが、感染者の50%から60%が死亡した。 e dependendo da cepa, algo entre 50 e 60 por cento das pessoas infectadas morreram. В зависимости от штамма, примерно от 50 до 60 процентов заражённых умирало. Zorlamaya bağlı olarak, hastalığa yakalanan yüzde 50-60 arası insan öldü. 根据毒株的不同,50% 到 60% 的感染者会死亡。

These days, bubonic plague is treatable by antibiotics, Hoje em dia, a peste bubónica pode ser tratada com antibióticos, В наше время бубонная чума лечится антибиотиками, Bugünlerde kara veba antibiyotiklerle tedavi edilebiliyor.

But such treatments have only been around for a few decades. As recently as the 20th century, outbreaks in India and China しかし、このような治療が行われるようになってからまだ数十年しか経っていない。20世紀に入ってからも、インドや中国で大流行した Mas estes tratamentos só existem há algumas décadas. Ainda no século XX, surtos na Índia e na China Ama bu tedaviler sadece birkaç onyıldır var. Daha henüz 20'inci yüzyılda Hindistan'da ve Çin'de

killed more than 12 million people. matou mais de 12 milhões de pessoas. ortaya çıkan ani salgınlar 12 milyondan fazla insanı öldürdü.

But the 14th century's Black Death was even worse. Mas a Peste Negra do século XIV foi ainda pior. Но Чёрная смерть XIV века была даже хуже. Lakin 14'üncü yüzyılın Kara Ölüm'ü çok daha feciydi.

Around 25 million people had died in Asia by the time the plague reached Constantinople in 1347, 1347年にペストがコンスタンチノープルに到達するまでに、アジアではおよそ2500万人が死亡した、 Cerca de 25 milhões de pessoas tinham morrido na Ásia quando a peste chegou a Constantinopla em 1347, Около 25 млн человек погибло в Азии к моменту, когда чума достигла Константинополя в 1347 году. 25 milyon civarında insan, veba Konstantinopolis'e 1347'de ulaştığında ölmüştü

and within four years, a staggering number of Europeans had died from it, そして4年以内に、おびただしい数のヨーロッパ人がこの病気で死亡した、 e, em quatro anos, um número impressionante de europeus tinha morrido da doença, В течение 4 лет, ошеломляющее количество европейцев погибло от неё, ve 4 yıl içinde kayda değer sayıdaki Avrupalı hastalıktan dolayı öldü.

often within two days of becoming infected. frequentemente no prazo de dois dias após a infeção. зачастую в течение 2 дней после заражения. Çoğu hastalığa yakalandıkları iki gün içinde ölüyordu.

People faced a heartbreaking decision: whether to risk caring for their ailing loved ones, 人々は悲痛な決断を迫られた、 As pessoas enfrentaram uma decisão dolorosa: arriscar-se a cuidar dos seus entes queridos doentes, Люди оказывались перед душераздирающим выбором: рискуя, помочь своим заболевшим любимым, İnsanlar iç sızlatan bir karar vereceklerdi: Ya hasta sevdiklerine bakmak için riske gireceklerdi ya da 人们面临着一个令人心碎的决定:是否冒险照顾生病的亲人,

or leave them to die alone in the hopes of avoiding infection. ou deixá-los morrer sozinhos na esperança de evitar a infeção. или оставить их умирать в одиночестве, надеясь избежать заражения. hastalıktan muaf kalma umuduyla onları ölüme terk edeceklerdi.

Some areas lost up to 80 percent of their population. Algumas zonas perderam até 80 por cento da sua população. Некоторые регионы потеряли до 80 процентов своего населения. Bazı bölgeler nüfuslarının yüzde 80 kadarını kaybetti.

The latest research claims that in Europe as a whole, around half of all people died. 最新の調査によると、ヨーロッパ全体では全死亡者の約半数が死亡したという。 As últimas investigações indicam que, em toda a Europa, cerca de metade das pessoas morreram. Новейшие исследования говорят, что во всей Европе погибла почти половина населения. Son araştırmalar Avrupa'nın tamamında tüm insanların aşağı yukarı yarısının öldüğünü belirtiyor.

Death haunted every moment. It's difficult to grasp 死はあらゆる瞬間につきまとった。理解するのは難しい A morte assombrava todos os momentos. É difícil de entender Смерть могла прийти в любой момент. Ölüm her an avlanıyordu. Kara Ölüm'ün ne kadar yıkıcı olduğunu

just how profound the Black Death was, 黒死病がどれほど甚大なものであったか、 como foi profunda a Peste Negra, Невозможно вообразить, какой силой обладала Чёрная смерть. kavramak bile zordu

but imagine losing half of your community in a few years to a poorly understood disease. しかし、理解されていない病気で数年以内にコミュニティの半分を失うことを想像してみてほしい。 mas imaginem perder metade da vossa comunidade em poucos anos devido a uma doença mal compreendida. Но представьте, каково это - потерять половину своего сообщества в течение нескольких лет из-за какой-то непонятной болезни. ama tebaanızın yarısını birkaç yıl içinde doğru dürüst çözülememiş bir hastalığa kaybettiğinizi düşünün.

Giovanni Boccaccio wrote, "Many died in the open street. ジョヴァンニ・ボッカッチョは、「多くの死者が広場で死んだ。 Giovanni Boccaccio escreveu: "Muitos morreram na rua. Джованни Боккаччо писал: "Многие кончались <...> на улице; Giovanni Boccaccio şöyle demişti: "Birçoğu caddelerde öldü.

Others dying in their houses, made it known by the stench of their rotting bodies. また、家の中で死んでいく者もおり、その腐敗した死体の悪臭で知られるようになった。 Outros, que morriam nas suas casas, davam a conhecer o cheiro dos seus corpos a apodrecer. иные, хотя и умирали в домах, давали о том знать соседям не иначе, как запахом своих разлагавшихся тел. Evlerinde ölen diğerleri ise çürüyen bedenlerinin kokularıyla fark edildi.

Consecrated churchyards did not suffice for the burial of the vast multitude of bodies, 神聖化された教会墓地では、膨大な数の遺体を埋葬するには不十分だった、 Os cemitérios consagrados não eram suficientes para o enterro da grande multidão de corpos, Так как для большого количества тел <...> не хватало освященной для погребения земли, <...> Kilseye tahsis edilmiş avlular cesetlerin çokluğundan defin işlemlerine yetmedi.

which were heaped by the hundreds in vast trenches, 塹壕に何百と積み上げられた、 que se amontoavam às centenas em vastas trincheiras, вырывали громадные ямы, куда сотнями клали приносимые трупы,

...like goods in a ship's hold. "How different has life become in the last 650 years?" ...船倉の荷物のように。「この650年で、人生はどれほど変わったのだろうか? ... como mercadorias num porão de navio. "Quão diferente se tornou a vida nos últimos 650 anos?" нагромождая их рядами, как товар на корабле..." Как сильно поменялась жизнь за последние 650 лет? ...就像船舱里的货物一样。 “过去 650 年来,生活发生了多大变化?”

The bacterium that caused the Black Death, is now available as a plush stuffed 黒死病を引き起こした細菌がぬいぐるみになって登場 A bactéria que causou a Peste Negra está agora disponível como peluche 导致黑死病的细菌现在可以作为毛绒填充物使用

...bacterium. They don't actually look that threatening, especially with eyes. But yeah, this is Yersenia Pestis! ...バクテリアだ。実際、それほど脅威には見えない。しかし、そう、これはエルセニア・ペスティスだ! ...bactéria. Não parecem assim tão ameaçadoras, especialmente com olhos. Mas sim, isto é Yersenia Pestis! Aslında o kadar da tehlikeli gözükmüyorlar, özellikle gözle bakılınca. Ama yine de bu bir Yersenia Pestis!

(Blown up and made into a stuffed animal.) No bacterium! Also you want to know an interesting fact about me? (吹いてぬいぐるみにする)細菌はいない!私の面白い事実を知りたい? (Embrulhado e transformado num animal de peluche.) Nenhuma bactéria! Também querem saber um facto interessante sobre mim? Şişirilmiş ve peluş bir hayvana doldurulmuş. Yok artık bakteri! Benim hakkımda ilginç bir bilgi öğrenmek ister misiniz? (吹起来做成毛绒玩具。)没有细菌!你也想知道关于我的一个有趣的事实吗?

I- I can't juggle. ジャグリングはできないんだ。 Não sei fazer malabarismos. Ben hokkabazlık yapamam.

Amid all this devastation, the Hundred Years War added sustained turmoil and destruction. こうした荒廃のなか、百年戦争がさらなる混乱と破壊をもたらした。 No meio de toda esta devastação, a Guerra dos Cem Anos veio acrescentar mais tumultos e destruição. Посреди всего этого опустошения, Столетняя война принесла долгий период смуты и разрушений. Tüm bu yıkımın ortasında, Yüzyıl Savaşları devamlı bir çatışma ve yıkım dahil etti.

The war was fought between the rulers of the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France, over who would rule large この戦争は、イングランド王国とフランス王国の支配者の間で、どちらが大規模な支配を行うかをめぐって争われた。 A guerra foi travada entre os governantes do Reino de Inglaterra e do Reino de França, para decidir quem governaria a grande

swaths of continental Europe, and it actually lasted at least 116 years, beginning in 1337. 1337年から少なくとも116年間続いた。 A Europa continental, que durou de facto pelo menos 116 anos, com início em 1337. И на самом деле она длилась как минимум 116 лет, начавшись в 1337 году.

One of the most interesting questions in history is: "Whether war leads to instability or instability leads to war?" Uma das questões mais interessantes da história é: "Se a guerra leva à instabilidade ou a instabilidade leva à guerra?" Один из наиболее интересных вопросов в истории: "Ведёт ли война к нестабильности или нестабильность ведёт к войне?" Tarihteki en ilginç sorulardan biri: "Savaş mı istikrarsızlığa yol açar yoksa istikrarsızlık mı savaşa yol açar?"

and the truth is probably e a verdade é provavelmente И правильный ответ, скорее всего, - Ve gerçek muhtemelen

..Yes. Both. Like, poor harvests and disease outbreaks make war more likely, ... Sim. Ambos. Por exemplo, más colheitas e surtos de doenças tornam a guerra mais provável, ДА. И ТО, И ДРУГОЕ. Так, плохие урожаи и эпидемии увеличивают вероятность войны, ...evet, ikisi de. Yetersiz mahsüller ve salgın hastalıklar savaşı daha olası hale getiriyor ama

but war also worsens poor harvests and disease outbreaks. mas a guerra também agrava as más colheitas e os surtos de doenças. но война усугубляет последствия плохих урожаев и эпидемий. savaş da aynı zamanda mahsülü verimsizleştiriyor ve salgın hastalıklara yol açıyor.

So amid the huge shocks to Europe that accompanied the Black Death, the Hundred Years War Assim, no meio dos enormes choques na Europa que acompanharam a Peste Negra, a Guerra dos Cem Anos Avrupa'yı Kara Ölüm'le birlikte sarsan Yüzyıl Savaşları'nın ortasında 因此,在黑死病给欧洲带来巨大冲击的情况下,百年战争

increased instability in the food supply, and also in long-held cultural beliefs, like The Code of Chivalry. maior instabilidade no abastecimento alimentar e também em crenças culturais de longa data, como o Código de Cavalaria. но и устоявшихся культурных традиций, таких как рыцарский кодекс. besin temini ve Şövalyelik Kuralları gibi uzun zamandır muhafaza edilen kültürel değerlerde de dengesizlik arttı. 食物供应以及长期存在的文化信仰(如《骑士守则》)的不稳定性增加。

Chivalry was a set of behaviors 騎士道とは一連の行動様式である O cavalheirismo era um conjunto de comportamentos Рыцарский кодекс был сводом правил поведения по отношению к благородному сопернику, Şövalyelik, kişinin savaş alanında saygı ve güven ile hareket ettiği,

toward knightly opponents, whom one would treat on the battlefield with respect and trust, not killing your fellow knight, 戦場で尊敬と信頼をもって接する騎士の相手に対して、仲間の騎士を殺すようなことはしない、 para com os adversários cavaleiros, a quem se trataria no campo de batalha com respeito e confiança, não matando o seu companheiro cavaleiro, Şövalye rakiplerine karşı, savaş alanında saygı ve güvenle davranır, şövalye arkadaşını öldürmezdi, 对于骑士对手,人们会在战场上尊重和信任他们,而不是杀死你的骑士同伴,

but, instead, holding him for ransom in good condition. しかし、その代わり、身代金として良好な状態で拘束した。 mas, em vez disso, mantê-lo para resgate em boas condições. ama bunun yerine onu fidye için iyi durumda tuttu. 但他却以良好的状态扣留他以索取赎金。

Such noble behavior separated the knight from common archers and mercenaries. このような高貴な振る舞いが、騎士を一般的な弓兵や傭兵から引き離した。 Este comportamento nobre separava o cavaleiro dos arqueiros e mercenários comuns. Bu tür asil davranışlar şövalyeyi sıradan okçulardan ve paralı askerlerden ayırırdı. 这种高尚的行为将骑士与普通弓箭手和雇佣兵区分开来。

But English Kings began to hire such mercenaries from across Europe, who viciously looted and plundered in a way しかし、イングランド王はヨーロッパ中からこのような傭兵を雇うようになり、彼らは悪辣なやり方で略奪と略奪を繰り返した。 Mas os reis ingleses começaram a contratar esses mercenários de toda a Europa, que saqueavam e pilhavam cruelmente de uma forma Ancak İngiliz Kralları, Avrupa'nın dört bir yanından, acımasızca yağma ve talan yapan bu tür paralı askerleri kiralamaya başladı

that wasn't terribly chivalrous. And some of these knights for hire found it so profitable to fight that even during それは騎士道精神に欠けるものだった。そして、雇われ騎士の中には、戦うことが非常に有益であることに気づいた者もいた。 que não era muito cavalheiresco. E alguns desses cavaleiros de aluguer acharam tão lucrativo lutar que mesmo durante Некоторые из таких "рыцарей по найму" нашли войну такой прибыльной, 这可不是什么侠义之举。其中一些雇佣骑士发现战斗非常有利可图,即使在

truces and peace treaties, they kept on marauding. The 116 Years War also changed the nature of war through innovation. 休戦と講和条約を結んでも、彼らは略奪を続けた。116年戦争もまた、技術革新によって戦争の本質を変えた。 tréguas e tratados de paz, continuaram a saquear. A Guerra dos 116 Anos também alterou a natureza da guerra através da inovação. что даже во время перемирий они продолжали мародёрствовать. Стошестнадцатилетняя война также изменила характер войны с помощью инноваций. Yağmaya devam ettiler. 116 yıllık savaş, yenilikler vasıtasıyla savaşın doğasını da değiştirdi. 停战与和平条约,他们继续掠夺。 116年战争也通过创新改变了战争的性质。

Like, non-aristocratic soldiers from England and Wales used the longbow, Por exemplo, os soldados não aristocráticos de Inglaterra e do País de Gales usavam o arco longo, Так, незнатные солдаты из Англии и Уэльса использовали длинный лук, Galler ve İngiltere'den aristokrat olmayan askerler hatasızlığı ve ölümcül hızıyla ünlenmiş

famed for its combined deadly speed and accuracy, and that helped the English prevail at the Battle of Agincourt 致命的なスピードと正確さを併せ持つことで有名で、アジャンクールの戦いでイングランド軍の勝利に貢献した。 famosa pela sua combinação de velocidade e precisão mortais, e que ajudou os ingleses a vencer na Batalha de Agincourt uzun yayları kullandılar. Bu da Agincourt Muharebesi'nde İngilizlerin baskın gelmesine yardımcı oldu.

Before the 100 Years War, the French had innovated with cannons on ships, Antes da Guerra dos Cem Anos, os franceses tinham inovado com canhões nos navios, Ещё до начала Столетней войны французы стали использовать пушки на кораблях, Yüzyıl savaşlarından önce Fransızlar gemilerde savaş topu yeniliğine gittiler.

which the English later used in the war's land battles. Both types of cannons, by the way, のちにイギリス軍が陸戦で使用した大砲である。ちなみに、両方のタイプの大砲がある、 que os ingleses usaram mais tarde nas batalhas terrestres da guerra. Ambos os tipos de canhões, já agora, İngilizler de bunu kara savaşlarında sonradan kullanacaktı. Bu arada iki tür savaş topunun da kaynağı,

relied on gunpowder, a Chinese invention. The Hundred Years War also saw the A Guerra dos Cem Anos também foi marcada pela utilização da pólvora, uma invenção chinesa. A Guerra dos Cem Anos também foi palco da bir Çin icadı olan barut idi. Yüzyıl savaşları aynı zamanda

spectacular rise and fall of Joan of Arc, born to a prosperous French peasant family in 1412. 1412年、フランスの裕福な農民の家に生まれたジョーン・オブ・アークの壮大な栄華と没落。 A espetacular ascensão e queda de Joana d'Arc, nascida no seio de uma próspera família de camponeses franceses em 1412. родившейся в обеспеченной французской крестьянской семье в 1412 году. 1412'de zengin köylü bir Fransız ailesinde doğan Jeanne d'Arc'ın da ihtişamlı yükselişini ve düşüşünü gördü. 1412 年出生于一个富裕的法国农民家庭的圣女贞德 (Joan of Arc) 的辉煌兴衰。

When she was sixteen, England had won enough battles to take over the French throne, confirmed in the 彼女が16歳のとき、イングランドはフランスの王位を引き継ぐのに十分な戦いに勝利していた。 Quando tinha dezasseis anos, a Inglaterra tinha ganho batalhas suficientes para conquistar o trono francês, confirmado na Когда ей было 16, англичане выиграли достаточно сражений, чтобы занять французский трон, 16 yaşındayken, İngiltere, Fransız tahtını devralmak için yeteri derecede savaş kazanmıştı.

1420 Treaty of Troyes, and France seemed leaderless. 1420年 トロワ条約が締結され、フランスは指導者不在の状態に陥った。 1420 Tratado de Troyes, e a França parecia não ter líder. что было подтверждено договором в Труа 1420 года, и казалось, что Франция осталась обезглавленной. 1420 Troyes Antlaşmasıyla da Fransa lidersiz gözüküyordu.

Visions told Joan to get French forces to take to the field and drive out the English, so that ジョアンは幻視によって、フランス軍を戦場に向かわせ、イングランド軍を追い出すよう命じられた。 As visões diziam a Joana para fazer com que as forças francesas entrassem em campo e expulsassem os ingleses, para que Видения сказали Жанне вывести французские войска в поле и прогнать англичан, Rüyetler, Joan'a Fransız güçlerini savaş alanına sürüp İngilizleri saf dışı bırakmasını söylüyordu. 异象告诉琼让法国军队上战场驱逐英国人,这样

Charles, whom she believed to be the rightful heir to the French throne, could be crowned, 彼女がフランス王位の正当な継承者だと信じていたシャルルが戴冠する可能性があったのだ、 Carlos, que ela acreditava ser o legítimo herdeiro do trono francês, poderia ser coroado, чтобы Карл, которого она считала законным наследником французского престола, мог быть коронован. 她认为查尔斯是法国王位的合法继承人,可以加冕,

and astonishingly this proved successful. そして驚くべきことに、これは成功した。 e, surpreendentemente, este projeto foi bem sucedido. И, ко всеобщему удивлению, ей это удалось. 令人惊讶的是,这证明是成功的。

By 1429, Charles was Charles VII of France. 1429年には、シャルルはフランスのシャルル7世となっていた。 Em 1429, Carlos era Carlos VII de França. К 1429 году Карл стал Карлом VII, королём Франции. 1429'a gelindiğinde Charles, Fransa'nın VII. Charles'ı idi. 到 1429 年,查尔斯是法国的查理七世。

But in the process, the Burgundians, a competing and powerful royal court, しかし、その過程で、競合する強力な王宮であるブルゴーニュ朝が誕生した、 Mas, no processo, os borgonheses, uma corte real concorrente e poderosa, Но в ходе этих событий, бургундцы - соперничающая с французами сильная монархия, Ama süreç içinde güçlü ve iddialı bir kraliyet mahkemesi olan Burgundiyalılar, 但在这个过程中,勃艮第人,一个竞争激烈且强大的王室,

captured Joan and turned her over to the English, who burned her at the stake in 1431. ジョアンは捕らえられ、イギリスに引き渡され、1431年に火あぶりにされた。 capturou Joana e entregou-a aos ingleses, que a queimaram na fogueira em 1431. поймали Жанну и передали её англичанам, которые сожгли её на костре в 1431. Joan'ı ele geçirdi ve onu 1431'de kazıkta yakacak olan İngilizlere teslim etti. 俘虏琼并将她交给英国人,英国人于 1431 年将她烧死在火刑柱上。

It's a bad way to go. Although, there are no good ways. 悪い方法だ。とはいえ、良い方法はない。 É um mau caminho a seguir. No entanto, não há bons caminhos. Ужасный конец, хотя хороших и не бывает. Gidilecek kötü bir yol ama iyi yol da yok. 这是一个糟糕的方法。虽然,没有什么好的办法。

If it sounds like European life in the 14th and 15th centuries was hard, Se parece que a vida europeia nos séculos XIV e XV era difícil, Звучит так, что жизнь европейцев в XIV-XV веках была сложной. 14'üncü ve 15'inci yüzyıllarda Avrupai yaşam zor gibi geliyorsa, 如果听起来 14 和 15 世纪的欧洲生活很艰难,

well, it was. Murder and violent crime rates were likely much higher than they are today, まあ、そうだった。殺人や暴力犯罪の発生率は、おそらく今よりもずっと高かっただろう、 bem, era. As taxas de homicídio e de crimes violentos eram provavelmente muito mais elevadas do que são atualmente, Ну, именно так и было. Уровень убийств и насильственной преступности, скорее всего, был гораздо выше, чем сегодня, evet, zordu. Cinayet ve şiddet suçları muhtemelen günümüzde olduğundan çok daha fazlaydı. 嗯,是的。谋杀和暴力犯罪率可能比现在高得多,

and dying in war was a pretty routine risk. 戦争で死ぬことは日常的なリスクだった。 e morrer na guerra era um risco bastante rotineiro. и гибель в бою была довольно привычным риском. Savaşta ölmek de oldukça olası bir ihtimaldi. 在战争中死亡是一个非常常见的风险。

Malnutrition and stunting were also very common. A subnutrição e o atraso no crescimento eram também muito comuns. Недоедание и задержки в росте тоже были распространены. Yetersiz beslenme ve bodurluk da epey yaygındı. 营养不良和发育迟缓也很普遍。

Child mortality was astonishingly high; perhaps as many as 50% of children died before the age of five. A mortalidade infantil era espantosamente elevada; talvez até 50% das crianças morressem antes dos cinco anos de idade. Детская смертность была невероятно высокой - возможно, вплоть до 50% детей умирало, не достигнув возраста 5 лет. Çocuk ölümleri inanılmaz bir şekilde yüksekti; belki de çocukların yüzde 50 kadar büyük bir kısmı 5 yaşına gelmeden ölüyordu. 儿童死亡率高得惊人;可能有多达 50% 的儿童在五岁之前死亡。

But at least people were surrounded by the comforts of religion. しかし、少なくとも人々は宗教の快適さに囲まれていた。 Mas, pelo menos, as pessoas estavam rodeadas pelo conforto da religião. Но, люди могли хотя бы найти себе отраду в религии. Ama en azından insanlar dinin konforuyla çevrelenmişti. 但至少人们被宗教的安慰所包围。

The comforts of religion, however, No entanto, os confortos da religião, Впрочем, отрада в религии оказалась не такой отрадной. Lakin, dini konforun 然而,宗教的安慰,

turned out not to be that comforting. しかし、それは慰めにはならない。 acabou por não ser assim tão reconfortante. o kadar da konforlu olmadığı ortaya çıktı. 结果并没有那么令人欣慰。

Let's go to the Thought Bubble. 思考バブルに行こう。 Vamos para o balão de pensamento. Gelin bir Düşünce Balonu'na gidelim. 让我们去思想泡泡。

In 1300, Pope Boniface VIII was the leader of the Catholic Church, 1300年、カトリック教会の指導者は教皇ボニファティウス8世だった、 Em 1300, o Papa Bonifácio VIII era o líder da Igreja Católica, 1300'de Papa VIII. Boniface, Katolik Kilisesi'nin lideriydi 1300年,教皇博尼法斯八世是天主教会的领袖,

but he was also an important political figure in Europe. しかし、彼はヨーロッパの重要な政治家でもあった。 mas foi também uma figura política importante na Europa. но он также был важной политической фигурой Европы. ama aynı zamanda Avrupa'da önemli bir siyasi figürdü. 但他也是欧洲重要的政治人物。

One of Europe's great questions was whether the Church had authority over the entire Catholic world, ヨーロッパの大きな問題の一つは、教会がカトリック世界全体を支配する権威を持っているかどうかということだった、 Uma das grandes questões da Europa era saber se a Igreja tinha autoridade sobre todo o mundo católico, Одним из важнейших вопросов для Европы был "Есть ли у Церкви власть над всем католическим миром, Avrupa'daki en önemli sorulardan biri Kilise'nin bütün Katolik dünyası üzerinde otorite sahibi olup olmadığı 欧洲最大的问题之一是教会是否对整个天主教世界拥有权威,

or if kings had the ultimate authority in their kingdoms? Could, for instance, King Philip IV of France あるいは、王がその王国で最終的な権限を持っていたとしたら?例えば、フランス王フィリップ4世が ou se os reis tivessem a autoridade máxima nos seus reinos? Poderia, por exemplo, o rei Filipe IV de França ya da kralın, kendi krallıklarında nihai otoriteye sahip olup olmadığıydı. Örneğin, Fransız kral Philip IV 或者如果国王在他们的王国中拥有最高权力?例如,法国国王菲利普四世能否

tax the Catholic clergy in France? tributar o clero católico em França? Fransa'daki Katolik ruhban sınıfını vergiye bağlayabilir miydi? 向法国的天主教神职人员征税?

Pope Boniface thought: No. He was from a well-connected and powerful family, 教皇ボニファティウスは思った:いや、彼はコネのある有力者の家系だった、 Pensou o Papa Bonifácio: Não. Ele era de uma família bem relacionada e poderosa, Папа Бонифаций считал, что нет. Он был из влиятельной семьи с хорошими связями, Papa Boniface düşündü: Hayır. Papa, çevresi geniş ve güçlü bir aileden geliyordu. 教皇博尼法斯想:不,他出身名门望族,

and at the start of the 14th century, he was flexing his muscles across the papacy, そして14世紀初頭には、ローマ教皇庁全体で力を発揮していた、 e, no início do século XIV, estava a exercitar os seus músculos no papado, и в начале XIV века он поигрывал мускулами на всё Папство, 14'üncü yüzyılın başlarında, 1302 yılında nihayet Papa'nın herkesin üzerinde en yüksek merci olduğunu ilan ederek 在 14 世纪初,他在罗马教廷大展拳脚,

ultimately declaring in 1302 that the Pope had supreme power over everyone! acabando por declarar em 1302 que o Papa tinha o poder supremo sobre toda a gente! в конечном счёте в 1302 году объявив, что Папа обладает абсолютной властью над всеми! papalık üzerinde güçlerini gösteriyordu. 最终在 1302 年宣布教皇对所有人拥有至高无上的权力!

The timing was bad in that kings were also starting to flex their muscles. タイミングが悪かったのは、王たちも筋肉を鍛え始めていたことだ。 O momento era mau, pois os reis também estavam a começar a exercitar os seus músculos. Время было выбрано неудачно в том смысле, что короли тоже начинали играть мускулами. Krallar da güçlerini göstermeye başladıklarından dolayı zamanlama kötüydü. 时机不对,因为国王们也开始大展拳脚了。

They wanted tax money from the Church to expand their administration. Boniface threatened to 彼らは自分たちの政権を拡大するために教会からの税金を欲していた。ボニファティウスは Queriam o dinheiro dos impostos da Igreja para expandir a sua administração. Bonifácio ameaçou Hükümranlıklarını genişletmek için Kilise'den vergi parası istiyorlardı. Boniface, daha sonradan kendisini kaçırtacak olan Philip'i 他们想要教会的税收来扩大他们的行政管理。博尼法斯威胁说

excommunicate Philip, who then had the Pope kidnapped. フィリップは教皇を破門し、教皇は教皇を誘拐した。 excomungou Filipe, que depois mandou raptar o Papa. aforoz etmekle tehdit ediyordu. 将腓力逐出教会,后者随后绑架了教皇。

Boniface was reportedly tortured in captivity and died soon after his release in 1303. ボニファティウスは獄中で拷問を受け、1303年に釈放された直後に亡くなったと伝えられている。 Bonifácio terá sido torturado em cativeiro e morreu pouco depois da sua libertação, em 1303. По сообщениям, в тюрьме Бонифация пытали, и он умер вскоре после своего освобождения в 1303 году. Boniface söylenilene göre esaretteyken işkenceye uğradı ve salınmasından kısa bir süre sonra 1303'te öldü. 据报道,博尼法斯在囚禁期间遭受酷刑,并在 1303 年获释后不久去世。

By 1305, Philip had arranged for the election of a French Pope and his installation at 1305年までには、フィリップはフランス人教皇の選出と、その教皇のローマ法王庁への就任を手配した。 Em 1305, Filipe tinha providenciado a eleição de um Papa francês e a sua instalação em 1305'e gelindiğinde Philip, Fransız Papa'nın seçilmesi için seçim ayarlamıştı ve o zamanlar 到 1305 年,菲利普已经安排了一位法国教皇的选举和他在

Avignon, just inside what was then the French border, アヴィニョンは、当時フランスとの国境を越えてすぐのところにある、 Avignon, no interior do que era então a fronteira francesa, Fransa'nın sınırları içinde olan Avignon'a ataması, 阿维尼翁,就在当时的法国边境内,

which made people think that the papacy was under the thumb of French kings and distant from its ローマ法王庁はフランス国王の支配下にあり、フランス国王の支配から遠ざかっていると人々に思わせたのである。 que levava as pessoas a pensar que o papado estava sob o controlo dos reis franceses e distante do seu insanların, papalığın Fransız krallarının eli altında olduğunu ve manevi misyonundan 这使人们认为教皇权在法国国王的控制之下,与它的权力相去甚远。

spiritual mission, which you know, it was. スピリチュアルな使命だった。 missão espiritual, que, como sabem, era. И знаете ли, так оно и было. uzak olduğunu düşündürdü, ki biliyorsunuz öyleydi. 精神使命,你知道,它是。

In 1377 Pope Gregory XI decided to move back to Rome, Em 1377, o Papa Gregório XI decidiu regressar a Roma, В 1377 году Папа Григорий XI решил вернуться назад, в Рим, но он вскоре умер. 1377'de Papa XI. Gregory, geri Roma'ya taşınmayı düşündü 1377年,教皇格雷戈里十一世决定搬回罗马,

but then he died. ama öldü. 但后来他死了。

The Cardinals, surrounded by loyal Romans, then elected an Italian pope, 忠実なローマ人に囲まれた枢機卿たちは、イタリア人教皇を選出した、 Os cardeais, rodeados de romanos leais, elegeram então um papa italiano, Sadık Romalılar tarafından çevrelenen Kardinaller, sonrasında bir İtalyan Papa seçtiler. 红衣主教在忠诚的罗马人的簇拥下,选出了一位意大利教皇,

causing the French Cardinals to scatter and regroup to elect a French pope to head the papal court in Avignon, フランスの枢機卿たちは、アヴィニョンの法王庁を率いるフランス人法王を選出するため、散り散りになって再結集した、 fazendo com que os cardeais franceses se dispersassem e se reagrupassem para eleger um papa francês para dirigir a corte papal em Avinhão, заставив французских кардиналов собраться и выбрать французского Папу, чтобы он мог занять Папский престол в Авиньоне, Böylece Fransız Kardinallerin dağılıp tekrar gruplaşmasına ve Avignon'daki papalığa yeni bir Fransız papa seçmesine sebep oldu. 导致法国红衣主教分散并重新集结,选举一位法国教皇领导阿维尼翁的教皇法庭,

which meant there were two popes and a schism had occurred. o que significa que havia dois papas e que tinha ocorrido um cisma. что означало, что теперь Пап двое, и произошёл Раскол. Bu da 2 papa olduğu anlamına geliyordu ve bölünme meydana geldi. 这意味着有两个教皇,并且发生了分裂。

Historians, in fact, call it the Great Schism. 歴史家はこれを「大分裂」と呼ぶ。 Os historiadores, de facto, chamam-lhe o Grande Cisma. Историки назвали его Великим Расколом. Aslında tarihçiler buna Büyük Bölünme diyor. 事实上,历史学家称之为大分裂。

Thanks, Thought Bubble. Спасибо, Пузырь Мыслей. Teşekkürler, Thought Bubble. 谢谢,思想泡泡。

The Great Schism was a huge blow to the Church and its claims of spiritual leadership, 大分裂は、教会とその精神的リーダーシップの主張にとって大きな打撃となった、 O Grande Cisma foi um rude golpe para a Igreja e para as suas pretensões de liderança espiritual, Великий Раскол был огромным ударом по Церкви и её претензии на её главенство в духовной сфере, 大分裂对教会及其精神领袖的主张是一个巨大的打击,

which had already been harmed by the clergy's inability 聖職者の能力不足によって、すでに害を受けていた。 que já tinha sido prejudicada pela incapacidade do clero которое уже было под вопросом из-за невозможности или нежелания духовенства 已经因神职人员的无能而受到伤害

or unwillingness to provide spiritual guidance during the Black Death. 黒死病の間、精神的な指導を提供する気がなかったか、あるいはやる気がなかったか。 ou a falta de vontade de fornecer orientação espiritual durante a Peste Negra. предоставить духовное наставление во время Чёрной смерти. zarar görmüş manevi liderlik iddiasına büyük bir darbeydi. 或不愿意在黑死病期间提供精神指导。

Priests and monks and nuns had been as frightened of and as vulnerable to 司祭や修道士や尼僧は、そのような人たちに怯え、傷つきやすかった。 Os padres, monges e freiras tinham tanto medo e eram tão vulneráveis a Rahipler, keşişler ve rahibeler, diğer herkes gibi korkmuş ve ölüme savunmasız 牧师、僧侣和修女们同样害怕和脆弱

death as everyone else. みんなと同じように死ぬ。 morte como toda a gente. hale gelmişlerdi. 和其他人一样死亡。

And now it wasn't even clear which pope was the real Pope, そして今、どの教皇が本当の教皇なのかさえ明確ではなかった、 E agora nem sequer era claro qual era o verdadeiro Papa, Şimdi ise hangi papa'nın gerçek Papa, hangi kilisenin gerçek Kilise olduğu da belirsizdi 现在甚至都不清楚哪位教皇才是真正的教皇,

or which church was the real Church. ou que igreja era a verdadeira Igreja. и какая Церковь - настоящей Церковью. 或者哪个教会是真正的教会。

This disunity, combined with stories of decidedly unspiritual indulgences, この不統一は、明らかに霊的でない放縦の話と結びついた、 Esta desunião, combinada com histórias de indulgências decididamente não espirituais, Эта разобщённость, соединённая с историями о решительно бездуховных индульгенциях, Bu uyuşmazlık, şüphesiz manevi olmayan düşkünlüklerle birleşince 这种不团结,再加上绝对不属灵的放纵故事,

all served to undermine the church's authority. いずれも教会の権威を損なうものだった。 tudo serviu para minar a autoridade da Igreja. послужила причиной подрыва авторитета Церкви. Kilise'nin otoritesinin sarsılmasına yol açtı. 所有这些都是为了削弱教会的权威。

Instead, spiritual and other direction came from common people, not the high-and-mighty, like その代わり、精神的な指導やその他の指導は、偉い人ではなく、庶民から受けた。 Em vez disso, a direção espiritual e outras orientações vinham de pessoas comuns, e não dos altos e poderosos, como Вместо неё, духовные и прочие указания исходили от простого народа, а не от сильных мира сего. Bunun yerine, manevi ve alternatif bir yol halkın içinden geldi, yükseklerden değil. 相反,精神和其他方面的指导来自普通民众,而不是高高在上的人,比如

Catherine of Siena, for instance, was an ordinary young woman of intense religious faith, たとえば、シエナのカテリーナは、強い信仰心を持った普通の若い女性だった、 Catarina de Siena, por exemplo, era uma jovem comum de intensa fé religiosa, Так, Екатерина Сиенская была обычной очень религиозной девушкой, Papa XI. Gregory'i başarılı bir şekilde Roma'ya geri getiren Siena'lı Catherine, 例如,锡耶纳的凯瑟琳是一位有着强烈宗教信仰的普通年轻女性,

who was the one who successfully urged Pope Gregory XI to return to Rome. Although then of course, he died. 彼は、ローマ教皇グレゴリウス11世にローマに戻るよう働きかけることに成功した人物である。もちろん、その後、彼は亡くなったが。 que foi o único que conseguiu incitar o Papa Gregório XI a regressar a Roma. Mas depois, claro, ele morreu. которая, однако, смогла успешно убедить Папу Григория XI вернуться в Рим, хотя он вскоре, разумеется, умер. terbiyeli, dinine bağlı genç bir kadındı. Sonrasında Gregory tabi ki de ölmüştü. 是谁成功地催促了教皇格列高利十一世返回罗马。当然,他死了。

Before Catherine died in 1380 at the age of 33, Antes de Catarina morrer, em 1380, com 33 anos de idade, До своей смерти в 1380 году в возрасте 33 лет, Екатерина приняла участие Catherine 1380 yılında, 33 yaşında ölmeden önce, 在凯瑟琳于 1380 年去世之前,年仅 33 岁,

she'd undertaken several diplomatic missions between the Church and Italian cities 彼女は教会とイタリアの都市との間で何度か外交使節団を引き受けた。 tinha efectuado várias missões diplomáticas entre a Igreja e cidades italianas в нескольких дипломатических миссиях между Церковью и итальянскими городами, Kilise ve İtalyan şehirleri arasında birkaç diplomatik misyon edindi ve 她在教会和意大利城市之间执行过几次外交任务

and had traveled across the region urging the clergy to reform themselves そして、聖職者たちに自己改革を促すため、各地を回っていた。 e viajou por toda a região instando o clero a reformar-se объехала весь регион, требуя от духовенства начать реформы и прилагать больше усилий в своём служении. Bölge boyunca seyahat ederek ruhban sınıfını reforma ve 并走遍了整个地区,敦促神职人员自我改革

and fortify their spiritual ministry. そして霊的な働きを強化する。 e fortalecer o seu ministério espiritual. manevi vekaletlerini güçlendirmeye çağırdı. 巩固他们的属灵事工。

Ultimately others in the Church called a council to end the Great Schism, and church leaders Por fim, outros membros da Igreja convocaram um concílio para pôr fim ao Grande Cisma, e os líderes da Igreja В конце концов, был собран совет с целью прекращения Великого Раскола, En sonunda Kilise'deki diğer insanlar Büyük Bölünme'yi sonlandırmak için bir konsül talep etti ve 最终,教会中的其他人召集了一个委员会来结束大分裂,教会领袖们

finally elected a single pope, Martin V, in 1417. finalmente elegeu um único papa, Martinho V, em 1417. и церковные лидеры в 1417 году наконец-то избрали единого Папу - Мартина V, Kilise liderleri 1417'de tek bir papa belirledi: V. Martin. 最终在 1417 年选出了一位教皇,马丁五世。

Although before that, things got truly out of control when a third Pope was elected for a while. しかし、その前に3人目のローマ法王が選出されてしばらくは、事態は本当に制御不能に陥った。 No entanto, antes disso, as coisas ficaram verdadeiramente fora de controlo quando um terceiro Papa foi eleito durante algum tempo. хотя до этого ситуация действительно вышла из под контроля, когда на какое-то время был избран третий Папа. Lakin bundan önce, bir süreliğine üçüncü bir papa daha seçilince işler tamamiyle çığrından çıktı. 虽然在那之前,有一段时间,第三位教皇的选举,让事情真正失控了。

I mean, if you wanted to be Pope, your chances really were never better than in the late Middle Ages. つまり、教皇になりたければ、中世後期ほどチャンスはなかったということだ。 Quer dizer, se quisesse ser Papa, as suas hipóteses nunca foram tão boas como no final da Idade Média. Таким образом, если Вы хотели стать Папой, Ваши шансы никогда не были выше, чем в Позднем Средневековье. Papa olmak isteseniz şansınız kesinlikle Orta Çağ sonlarından daha iyi değil. 我的意思是,如果你想成为教皇,你真的没有比中世纪晚期更好的机会了。

All of this meant that European Christendom really was declining in power, Tudo isto significava que a cristandade europeia estava de facto a diminuir o seu poder, Всё это означало, что европейское христианство действительно теряло свою власть. Tüm bunlar Avrupa Hristiyanlığı'nın çöküşte olduğunu gösteriyordu 所有这一切都意味着欧洲基督教世界的权力真的在衰落,

and in 1453, the Ottomans, a Turkic ethnic group of Muslims captured the capital of the Byzantine Empire, そして1453年、イスラム教徒のテュルク系民族であるオスマン帝国がビザンチン帝国の首都を占領した、 e em 1453, os otomanos, um grupo étnico turco de muçulmanos, capturaram a capital do Império Bizantino, В 1453 году османы, тюркская этническая группа мусульман, захватили столицу Византийской империи, ve 1453'te Türk kökenli olan Müslüman Osmanlılar, Bizans İmparatorluğu'nun başkentini ele geçirdi. 1453年,突厥穆斯林族群奥斯曼人占领了拜占庭帝国的首都,

with the help, by the way, of a Hungarian munitions expert who knew about cannons. com a ajuda, aliás, de um perito húngaro em munições que percebia de canhões. не без помощи венгерского эксперта по боеприпасам, который знал про пушки. Bu arada, bu, savaş topları hakkında bilgisi olan Macar bir cephane uzmanının yardımıyla olmuştu. 顺便说一句,在了解大炮的匈牙利军火专家的帮助下。

The Byzantine Emperor had felt that the munition expert's fees were too high. ビザンチン皇帝は、軍需専門家の報酬が高すぎると感じていた。 O Imperador Bizantino considerou que os honorários do perito em munições eram demasiado elevados. Византийский император считал, что расходы на такого эксперта были слишком велики. Bizans İmparatoru cephane uzmanının ücretinin çok yüksek olduğunu hissetmişti. 拜占庭皇帝觉得军火专家的收费太高了。

The Ottomans already controlled parts of southeastern Europe, Os otomanos já controlavam partes do sudeste da Europa, Османы уже контролировали часть юго-восточной Европы, Osmanlılar çoktan güneydoğu Avrupa'nın bazı kısımlarını kontrol ediyordu 奥斯曼人已经控制了东南欧的部分地区,

but capturing the Byzantine capital and beheading its Emperor was a big deal. mas capturar a capital bizantina e decapitar o seu imperador era uma grande coisa. но захват столицы Византии и казнь её императора были важным событием, ama Bizans'ın başkentini ele geçirmek ve imparatorunun kafasını kesmek büyük bir olaydı. 但占领拜占庭首都并斩首其皇帝是一件大事。

It was the final fall of the Roman Empire, and Islam went on to replace Christianity as the leading religion in それはローマ帝国の最後の崩壊であり、イスラム教はキリスト教に取って代わり、ローマ帝国の主要な宗教となった。 Foi a queda final do Império Romano e o Islão substituiu o Cristianismo como a principal religião do mundo. Bu Roma İmparatorluğu'nun yok oluşuydu ve İslam, Konstantinopolis'te meşhur Katedralİ Ayasofya Camii'sine dönüşüp 那是罗马帝国的最后衰落,伊斯兰教继续取代基督教成为罗马帝国的主要宗教

Constantinople, as its famed Cathedral became the Hagia Sophia mosque. コンスタンチノープルでは、有名な大聖堂がアヤソフィアのモスクとなった。 Constantinopla, a sua célebre catedral transformou-se na mesquita de Hagia Sophia. в то время как его известный собор стал мечетью Айя-София. Hristiyanlığı geçerek hakim din haline gelmişti. 君士坦丁堡,因其著名的大教堂成为圣索菲亚清真寺。

And control of Constantinople was a big deal for many reasons, including trade routes, E o controlo de Constantinopla era um grande negócio por muitas razões, incluindo as rotas comerciais, Захват Константинополя был важным событием по многим причинам, Konstantinopolis'i kontrol etmek ticaret yolları gibi birçok nedenden dolayı büyük bir olaydı. 控制君士坦丁堡是一件大事,原因有很多,包括贸易路线,

but also because Constantinople at the time was probably Europe's least terrible city というのも、当時のコンスタンチノープルは、おそらくヨーロッパで最もひどい都市ではなかったからだ mas também porque, na altura, Constantinopla era provavelmente a cidade menos terrível da Europa в том числе из-за торговых путей, но ещё и из-за того, что Константинополь в это время был, скорее всего, "наименее ужасным городом Европы". 也因为当时的君士坦丁堡可能是欧洲最不可怕的城市

Meanwhile, the aforementioned use of mercenaries helped undermine the feudal system, 一方、前述の傭兵の活用は封建制度の弱体化に貢献した、 Entretanto, a já referida utilização de mercenários contribuiu para minar o sistema feudal, В это же время, вышеупомянутое использование наёмников обеспечило подрыв феодальной системы, 同时,上述雇佣军的使用有助于破坏封建制度,

in which everyone owed loyalty to a lord, from knights to a serf, who was bound to that lord's land. 騎士から農奴まで、誰もが領主に忠誠を誓い、その領主の土地に縛られていた。 em que todos deviam lealdade a um senhor, desde os cavaleiros aos servos, que estavam vinculados às terras desse senhor. в которой каждый был обязан присягать на верность своему господину, от рыцарей до крепостных, которые были привязаны к земле этого господина. 每个人都对领主忠诚,从骑士到农奴,他们都被领主的土地所束缚。

The Black Death and persistent warfare helped change that too. 黒死病と執拗な戦争がそれを変えた。 A Peste Negra e as guerras persistentes também contribuíram para mudar essa situação. Чёрная смерть и непрекращающиеся войны тоже ускорили эти изменения. 黑死病和持续不断的战争也帮助改变了这一点。

And there were also far fewer humans, which meant fewer people to work in agriculture, また、人間の数も圧倒的に少なかったため、農業に従事する人の数も少なかった、 E também havia muito menos humanos, o que significava menos pessoas para trabalhar na agricultura, Теперь было гораздо меньше людей, которые могли бы работать в сельском хозяйстве. Ve ortalıkta çok daha az insan vardı. Bu da tarımda daha az insanın çalışması anlamına geliyordu. 人类也少得多,这意味着从事农业工作的人更少,

so serfs could demand their freedom because their labor had become much more valuable. そのため、農奴は労働の価値が高まったので、自由を要求できるようになった。 para que os servos pudessem exigir a sua liberdade porque o seu trabalho se tinha tornado muito mais valioso. Поэтому крепостные могли потребовать себе свободу, ведь их труд стал гораздо ценнее. Böylece toprak ağaları özgürlük talebinde bulundu çünkü işleri çok daha değerli olmuştu. 所以农奴可以要求他们的自由,因为他们的劳动变得更有价值了。

Indeed, peasants rebelled when the nobility failed to meet their demands for better conditions. 実際、農民たちは、貴族たちがよりよい条件を求める彼らの要求に応えられなかったために反乱を起こした。 De facto, os camponeses revoltaram-se quando a nobreza não satisfez as suas exigências de melhores condições. Разумеется, крестьяне восставали, когда знать не могла обеспечить им лучшие условия, Dahası, soylular isteklerini karşılamayınca köylüler de ayaklandı. 事实上,当贵族未能满足他们对更好条件的要求时,农民就会造反。

Like in the Peasants Revolt of 1381 in England, Como na Revolta dos Camponeses de 1381 em Inglaterra, так, например, во время крестьянского восстания 1381 года в Англии İngiltere'deki 1381 Köylüler İsyanı'ndaki gibi, 就像 1381 年英国的农民起义一样,

they murdered nobles and sacked castles and manor houses. 彼らは貴族を殺害し、城や荘園を略奪した。 assassinaram nobres e saquearam castelos e casas senhoriais. они убивали знатных людей, разрушали замки и поместья. soyluları öldürdüler ve kaleleri ve malikaneleri yağmaladılar. 他们杀害贵族,洗劫城堡和庄园。

And in cities, urban artisans wanted higher pay and an end to higher taxes. そして都市部では、職人たちが賃上げと増税の中止を求めていた。 E nas cidades, os artesãos urbanos queriam salários mais altos e o fim dos impostos mais elevados. В городах же ремесленники хотели повышения оплаты труда и снижения налогов. Şehirlerde kentli zanaatkarlar daha yüksek ücret ve yüksek vergilere son verilmesini istedi. 在城市里,城市工匠希望获得更高的报酬并结束更高的税收。

In 1378, The Ciompi, or workers in the cloth trade, rebelled in Florence, demanding an end to harsh 1378年、フィレンツェで布地貿易の労働者であるシオンピが反乱を起こした。 Em 1378, os Ciompi, ou seja, os trabalhadores do comércio de tecidos, revoltaram-se em Florença, exigindo o fim das duras 1378'de Ciompiler ya da kumaş ticareti işçileri, borç için yürütülen ağır davalara ve 1378 年,布料贸易工人 Ciompi 在佛罗伦萨起义,要求结束严酷的

prosecution for debt and an end to the imposition of extra taxes. 借金の起訴と追加課税の廃止。 perseguição da dívida e fim da imposição de impostos suplementares. ekstra vergilerin dayatılmasına karşı Floransa'da isyan ettiler. 起诉债务并停止征收额外税款。

They marched through the streets, shouting, "Long live the little people." 彼らは "小市民万歳 "と叫びながら通りを行進した。 Marcharam pelas ruas, gritando: "Viva o povo pequeno". Они шествовали по улицам и кричали: "Да здравствует тощий народ!" Caddelerde "Yaşasın küçük insanlar." nidalarıyla yürüdüler. 他们游行穿过街道,高喊“小人物万岁”。

The expansion of rights for artisans and farm workers A expansão dos direitos dos artesãos e dos trabalhadores agrícolas Расширение прав ремесленников и крестьян будет, разумеется, очень долгим процессом, Zanaatçiler ve çiftlik çalışanları için hakların genişletilmesi 扩大工匠和农场工人的权利

would of course be a very long process, もちろん、非常に長いプロセスになるだろう、 seria, naturalmente, um processo muito longo, elbette çok uzun bir süreç oldu 当然会是一个很漫长的过程,

but their growing power and the decline of feudalism was a dramatic shift for Europe. mas o seu poder crescente e o declínio do feudalismo constituíram uma mudança dramática para a Europa. но их растущая сила и упадок феодализма - существенный сдвиг для Европы. ama büyüyen güçleri ve feodalizmin düşüşü Avrupa için kritik bir kaymaydı. 但他们日益强大的力量和封建制度的衰落对欧洲来说是一个戏剧性的转变。

Even warfare itself had changed. People no longer fought for ethical reasons or for God's glory 戦争そのものさえも変わってしまった。人々はもはや倫理的な理由や神の栄光のために戦うことはなくなった。 Até a própria guerra tinha mudado. As pessoas já não lutavam por razões éticas ou pela glória de Deus Даже военное дело изменилось - теперь люди воевали не по этическим причинам или во славу Божью, 甚至战争本身也发生了变化。人们不再为道德原因或上帝的荣耀而战